Kamis, 20 Agustus 2009

PROBLEM SOLVING
Didalam hidup setiap orang pastilah akan banyak sekali masalah yang menghadang. Dan sayangnya kita tidak bisa memilih kapan masalah itu harus datang. Masalah itu seperti pencuri yang datangnya kita tidak tahu setiap orang mempunyai masalahnya sendiri
Definisi masalah (Definition of Problem)
Masalam adalah perbedaan antara ekspektasi atau harapan dengan realitas atau keadaan yang sebenarnya atau perbedaan antara das sain dengan das sollen.
Pada dasarnya, masalah adalah:
1. Sesuatu yang membutuhkan sebuah solusi (something that need a solution).
2. Dapat menjadi positif atau negative (can be either positive or negative)
Problem Solving
Problem solving atau pemecahan masalah adalah bagian dari proses berpikir. Sering dianggap merupakan proses paling kompleks diantara semua fungsi kecerdasan, pemecahan masalah telah didefinisikan sebagai proses kognitif tingkat tinggi yang memerlukan modulasi dan kontrol lebih dari keterampilan-keterampilan rutin atau dasar. Proses ini terjadi jika suatu organisme atau sistem kecerdasan buatan tidak mengetahui bagaimana untuk bergerak dari suatu kondisi awal menuju kondisi yang dituju.
Perbedaan Problem Solving dengan Decision Making
Problem solving dan decision making adalah dua hal yang asngat penting dalam kehidupan. Problem solving melibatkan decision making, semntara decision making lebih banyak digunakan dalam bisnis dan kepemimpinan. Seringkali kita sukar membedakan antara problem solving dengan decision making.Dengan memandang dari sudut proses baik problem solving maupun decision making menggunakan langkah-langkah yang miripNamun dari segi hasil, Problem solving ialah pemikiran yang berujung kepada hasil solusi masalah dimana masalah tidak lain gap kinerja yang diinginkan dengan kenyataan. Berbeda dengan problem solving, decision making adalah pemikiran yang berujung pada choice.
Choice terjadi dan ada dalam proses problem solving. Saat kita menyelesaikan masalah maka setiap langkah yang ditempuh menggenggam erat aspek pengambilan keputusan.
Contoh kasus ketika anda ingin melanjutkan studi setelah lulus SMA, berarti anda anda belum melanjutkan studi, anda kemudian dihadapkan pada tahap dimana anda harus membuat sebuah keputusan(decision making), masuk ke dalam sebuah Perguruan Tinggi Negeri, atau PTS, Unhas atau UNM, Kedokteran atau Hukum, namun membuat keputusan tidak cukup. Anda hrus memecahkan masalah anda dengan Masuk kedalam sebuah perguruan tinggi.
“Dalam hidup kita pun banyak pilihan yang akan kita ambil. Keberhasilan merupakan suatu rangkaian pilihan tepat yang kita ambil saat kesempatan atau masalah datang. Hidup adalah segala hal mengenai pilihan. Pilihanmulah yang membuat hidupmu menjadi lebih hidup.”
Frekuensi Masalah (Frequencies)
1. Chronic : ongoing and accepted problems
2. Spasmodic : sudden change to normal process
Level Masalah (Problem Levels)
1. Level 0 : abnormality only effecting those directly related to the
process and contained,
2. Level 1 : abnormality that effects the processes ability to achieve Q, C
and D,
3. Level 2 : abnormality that effects the next process and may have an
impact on the final customer
Prinsip Problem Solving
1. Problem definition
Menemukan permalahannya, penyebutan problema yang singkat dan jelas akan semakin baik. Langkah pertama menekankan bahwa anda harus membahas permasalahan yang ditemui sekarang, semakin sederhana dan semakin jelas makin baik. Sebagai contoh, ketika anda menghadapi permasalahan hubungan antar manusia, bisa memetik keluar problemanya, seperti “Saya dikucilkan oleh teman sekelas tertentu”, inilah yang disebut penuturan singkat dan jelas, dengan begitu juga lebih mudah ditangani, tetapi jikalau anda menyatakan “Hubungan antar manusia saya tidak baik”, ini terlihat agak lebih kosong, kabur, bisa membuat langkah penyelesaian selanjutnya sulit dilaksanakan
2. Identifi root cause
Menemukan akar permasalahan, apa yang menyebabkan anda terkucilkan? Adakah sifat anda yang membuat anda terkucilkan?
3. Mencari berbagai metode penyelesaian yang memungkinkan
Apabila anda dikucilkan oleh sebagian teman sekelas, sedangkan anda ingin menyelesaikan problem ini, tentu saja bisa memikirkan berbagai cara penyelesaian. Misalnya saja, mengundang teman sekelas lainnya membantu anda tampil berkomunikasi, dengan proaktif memancarkan niat baik, mengajak guru berbicara dan tidak menghiraukan mereka dll. Apabila anda berpikir dengan seksama, bisa saja memikirkan banyak cara penyelesaian.
4. Pertimbangkan setiap cara penyelesaian pragmatis dan dampaknya
Ketika sesudah anda mengemukakan berbagai metode penyelesaian yang memungkinkan, harus satu persatu menganalisa sifat pragmatis dan dampak dari metode tersebut. Misalnya, jikalau anda ingin mencari teman sekelas lainnya untuk membantu anda berkomunikasi, adakah situasi yang bisa menimbulkan kekeliruan penyampaian? Bisakah pihak lain merasakan ketidak-tulusan anda? Apabila anda proaktif memancarkan kebajikan, bisakah pihak lain sama sekali tak menghiraukannya? Apabila mereka tidak bereaksi, maka anda harus bagaimana?
5. Pilih salah satu metode penyelesaian
Ketika anda sesudah menganalisa berbagai kelebihan dan kekurangan metode-metode tertentu, sudah harus memilih sebuah cara penyelesaian untuk dilaksanakan.
6. Langkah penyelesaian yang kongkret
Ketika sesudah anda telah memutuskan salah satu cara pelaksanaan, maka harus merencanakan langkah pelaksanaan dengan cermat. Kemungkinan anda di dalam proses penetapan perencanaan pelaksanaan melihat sebagian point kesulitan, waktu itu anda boleh menyelesaikannya sebelum kesulitan terjadi.
7. Pelaksanaan metode penyelesaian tersebut
8. Menilai proses penyelesaian problema secara keseluruhan
Pirkan dengan seksama apakah masih ada yang perlu dirombak, dan tentukan tingkatan nilai 1 hingga 10, untuk melakukan penilaian terhadap tingkatan yang dicapai diri sendiri.
9. Menilai efektifitas pelaksanaan diri
Jikalau rencana telah dilaksanakan dengan sukses, yang bersangkutan bisa berubah menjadi lebih percaya diri, juga rela menerjuni cara penyelesaian perenungan permasalahan yang lebih banyak. Meski rencana dan pelaksanaan telah gagal, yang bersangkutan bisa mempelajari hikmah dari dalam proses introspeksinya.
Tipe-Tipe Problem Solving (Different Type Of Problem Solving)
1. Preventative
This looks at putting in place solution prior to abnormalities occurring. Best identified during the design stage prior to transfer to manufacturing using advanced quality tools
2. Pro-active
This looks at the current standard and by analyzing data using the 7 quality control tools seek to make kaizen improvements.
3. Reactive
This looks at the abnormalities that have occurred and by gathering and analyzing data using some of the 7 quality control tools aims to provide a customer protection and countermeasure.
PROBLEM SOLVING HINTS AND WISDOM
1. Take time to examine and explore the problem thoroughly before setting out in search of a solution. Often, to understand the problem is to solve it.
2. Breaking the problem in to smaller parts will often make it much easier. Solve each part separately.
3. The resources for problem solving are immense and ubiquitous.
4. You can always do something.
5. A problem is not a punishment; it is an opportunity to increase the happiness of the world, an opportunity to show how powerful you really are.
6. The formulation of a problem determines the range of choices: the questions you ask determine the answer you receive.
7. Be careful not look for a solution until you understand the problem, and be careful to select a solution until you have a whole range of choices.
8. The initial statement of a problem often reflects a preconceived solution.
9. A wide range of choice (ideas, possible solutions) allows you to choose the best from among many. A choice of a one is not a choice.
10. People work to implement their own ideas and solutions much more energetically than they work to implement others ideas and solutions.
11. Remember the critical importance of acceptance in solving problems. A solution that is technologically brilliant sociologically stupid is not a good solution.
12. When the goal state is clear but the present state is ambiguous, try working backwards.
13. Procrastinators finish last.
14. Denying a problem perpetuates it.
15. Solve the problem that really exist, not just the symptoms of a problem, not the problem you already have a solution for, not the problem you wish existed, and not the problem someone else thinks exists.
16. A maker follows a plan; a creator produces a plan.
17. Creativity is the construction of something’s new out of something’s old, through effort and imagination.
PROBLEM SOLVING
PENDAHULUAN
Irama hidup manusia itu adalah masalah (problem) . Seseorang tidak dapat dikatakan hidup, bila tidak pernah menghadapi masalah. Siapa pun orangnya, tidak akan bisa luput dari masalah. Dari Nabi Adam AS hingga Nabi Muhammad SAW, timpa-bertimpa masalah yang harus diselesaikannya. Namun, dengan kiat-kiat khusus, para utusan Allah itu berhasil menyelesaikan (to solve) masalah-masalah yang dihadapi.
Dengan demikian, kita haruslah menyadari bahwa hidup dan kehidupan kita berhiaskan masalah, baik masalah yang datang dari diri kita sendiri mau-pun masalah yang datang dari luar kita. Hidup adalah masalah. Masalah adalah jarak antara keinginan dan kenyataan yang dihadapi saat ini. Masalah adalah suatu keadaan yang tidak sesuai dengan harapan yang kita inginkan. Kemam-puan kita mempertemukan keinginan dan kenyataan, itulah yang dinamakan dengan memecahkan masalah .
Pemecahan masalah (problem solving) dapat didefenisikan sebagai suatu proses penghilangan perbedaan atau ketidaksesuaian yang terjadi antara hasil yang diperoleh dan hasil yang diinginkan. Salah satu bagian dari proses peme-cahan masalah adalah pengambilan keputusan (decision making) yang didefe-nisikan sebagai memilih solusi terbaik dari sejumlah alternatif yang tersedia. Pengambilan keputusan yang tidak tepat akan mempengaruhi kualitas hasil pemecahan masalah yang dilakukan.
Kemampuan untuk melakukan pemecahan masalah adalah keteram-pilan yang dibutuhkan oleh hampir semua orang dalam aspek kehidupannya. Akan tetapi, keterampilan ini menjadi lebih penting lagi perannya, bila dikait-kan dengan posisi seorang pemimpin yang melaksanakan tugas-tugas kepemim-pinannya dalam suatu organisasi. Pimpinan yang mampu menyelesaikan masa-lah organisasinya dengan tepat dan benar, dipastikan akan dapat mengambil keputusan yang tepat untuk memperlancar kepemimpinannya.
Beragam teori tentang pemecahan masalah telah dihasilkan oleh banyak pakar dan ahli manajemen. Akan tetapi, dari sederetan teori tersebut, metode pemecahan masalah secara analitis dipandang sebagai teori yang ‘mempan’ untuk beragam kondisi dan suasana organisasi. Metode ini adalah salah satu pendekatan pemecahan masalah yang sering dilakukan, serta bisa meningkat-kan kualitas individu. Dengan menggunakan metode ini, seseorang dituntut untuk bisa lebih kreatif dalam menganalisa sebuah permasalahan. Kendatipun demikian, keberhasilan metode ini sangat bergantung kepada kepiawaian indi-vidu atau pemimpin yang terlibat dalam masalah yang hendak diselesaikan itu.
  1. LANGKAH-LANGKAH PEMECAHAN MASALAH
Dalam memecahkan permasalahan yang dihadapi, terutama dalam kepe-mimpinan sebuah organisasi, ada beberapa langkah yang harus dilalui, yaitu :
1. Menganalisa Masalah
Pada bagian ini, kita dituntut untuk bisa menganalisa atau melakukan diagnosa terhadap sebuah masalah, kejadian, peristiwa atau situasi supaya kita bisa fokus pada masalah yang sebenarnya. Seringkali orang dalam mela-kukan pemecahan masalah terjebak pada gejala-gejala yang timbul dari masalah tersebut.
Agar kita bisa memfokuskan perhatian kita pada masalah sebenarnya, dan bukan pada gejala-gejala yang muncul, maka dalam proses mendefenisi-kan suatu masalah, diperlukan upaya mencari informasi yang diperlukan sebanyak-banyaknya. Dengan demikian diharapkan, kita bisa mendefensi-kan masalahnya dengan tepat dan benar.
Berikut ini adalah beberapa karakteristik dari pendefenisian masalah yang baik :
1. Fakta dipisahkan dari opini atau spekulasi. Data objektif harus dipisah-kan dari persepsi.
2. Semua pihak yang terlibat diperlukan sebagai sumber informasi.
3. Masalah harus dinyatakan secara tegas. Hal ini seringkali dapat meng-hindarkan kita dari pembuatan defenisi yang tidak jelas.
4. Defenisi yang dibuat harus menyatakan dengan jelas adanya ketidak-sesuaian antara standar atau harapan yang telah ditetapkan sebelumnya dan kenyataan yang terjadi.
5. Defenisi yang dibuat harus menyatakan dengan jelas pihak-pihak yang terkait atau berkepentingan dengan terjadinya masalah itu.
2. Membuat Alternatif Pemecahan Masalah
Setelah kita berhasil mendiagnosa masalah tersebut dengan tepat dan benar, langkah berikutnya yang harus dilakukan adalah membuat sejumlah alternatif pemecahan masalah. Pada tahap ini, kita diharapkan dapat memi-lih hanya satu solusi, sebelum alternatif solusi-solusi yang ada diusulkan. Dengan memilih satu solusi masalah yang ditawarkan akan menjadikan kualitas pemecahan masalah lebih efektif dan efesien.
Ada beberapa karakteristik pembuatan masalah yang harus diperha-tikan, yakni :
a. Semua alternatif yang ada sebaiknya diusulkan dan dikemukakan terle-bih dahulu sebelum kemudian dilakukan evaluasi.
b. Alternatif-alternatif yang ada, diusulkan oleh semua orang yang terlibat dalam penyelesaian masalah. Semakin banyak orang yang mengusulkan alternatif, semakin bagus pula untuk meningkatkan kualitas solusi dan penerimaan kelompok.
c. Alternatif-alternatif yang diusulkan harus sejalan dengan tujuan atau kebijakan organisasi. Kritik dapat menjadi penghambat, baik terhadap proses organisasi maupun proses pembuatan alternatif pemecahan masalah.
d. Alternatif-alternatif yang diusulkan perlu mempertimbangkan konse-kuensi yang muncul dalam jangka pendek maupun jangka panjang.
e. Alternatif-alternatif yang ada saling melengkapi satu dengan yang lain. Gagasan yang kurang menarik, bisa menjadi gagasan yang menarik bila dikombinasikan dengan gagasan-gagasan lainnya.
f. Alternatif yang diusulkan harus dapat menyelesaikan masalah yang telah didefenisikan dengan baik. Masalah lainnya yang muncul, mungkin juga penting. Namun dapat diabaikan bila tidak secara langsung mempenga-ruhi pemecahan masalah utama yang sedang terjadi.
3. Mengevaluasi Alternatif-alternatif
Setelah kita berhasil mengenali karakteristik pembuatan alternatif tersebut di atas, kita perlu pula untuk mengevaluasi alternatif-alternatif pemecahan masalah yang telah diambil. Pada tahap ini, kita dituntut untuk berhati-hati memberikan penilaian keuntungan dan kerugian terhadap alternatif-alternatif yang diambil. Agar kita tidak terjebak pada kesalahan dalam penentuan solusian atau pemecahan masalah, maka pada tahap evaluasi ini kita harus memperhatikan :
1. Tingkat kemungkinannya untuk dapat menyelesaikan masalah tanpa menyebabkan terjadinya masalah lain yang tidak diperkirakan sebelum-nya.
2. Tingkat penerimaan dari semua orang yang terlibat di dalamnya.
3. Tingkat kemungkinan penerapannya.
Berikut ini adalah karakteristik-karakteristik dari evaluasi alternatif pemecahan masalah yang baik :
a. Alternatif-alternatif yang ada dinilai secara relatif berdasarkan suatu standar yang optimal, bukan sekadar standar yang memuaskan.
b. Penilaian terhadap alternatif-alternatif yang ada dilakukan secara siste-matis, sehingga semua alternatif yang diusulkan akan dipertimbangkan.
c. Alternatif-alternatif yang ada dinilai berdasarkan kesesuaiannya dengan tujuan organisasi dan mempertimbangan pandangan-pandangan dari orang lain yang terlibat di dalamnya.
d. Alternatif-alternatif yang ada dinilai berdasarkan dampak yang mung-kin ditimbulkannya, baik secara langsung maupun tidak langsung.
e. Alternatif yang paling dipilih dinyatakan secara tegas.
4. Rencana Tindak Lanjut
Yang harus dilakukan selanjutnya adalah penerapan solusi yang telah kita pilih pada bagian pencarian alternatif pemecahan masalah. Pada bagian ini, seorang penentu kebijakan harus peka pada keadaan yang mungkin timbul terhadap solusi yang dijalankan, karena bagaimana pun, setiap solusi yang ditawarkan selalu ada titik balik yang kemungkinan ada reaksi negatif.
Berikut ini adalah karakteristik dari penerapan dan rencana tindak lanjut yang efektif :
1. Penerapan solusi dilakukan pada saat yang tepat dan dalam urutan yang benar. Penerapan tidak mengabaikan faktor-faktor yang membatasi dan tidak akan terjadi sebelum tahap 1, 2, dan 3 dalam proses pemecahan masalah dilakukan.
2. Penerapan solusi dilakukan dengan menggunakan strategi “sedikit demi sedikit” dengan tujuan meminimalkan terjadinya perlawanan dan me-ningkatkan dukungan.
3. Proses penerapan solusi meliputi juga proses pemberian umpan balik. Berhasil tidaknya penerapan solusi, haris dikomunikasikan, sehingga terhadi proses pertukaran informasi.
4. Keterlibatan dari orang-orang yang akan terkena dampak dari penera-pan solusi dianjurkan dengan tujuan untuk membangun dukungan dan komitmen.
5. Adanya sistem monitoring yang dapat memantau penerapan solusi secara berkesinambungan.
6. Penilaian terhadap keberhasilan penerapan solusi berdasarkan atas terselesaikannya masalah yang dihadapi, bukan karena adanya manfaat lain yang diperoleh dengan adanya penerapan solusi ini. Sebuah solusi tidak dapat dianggap berhasil bila masalah yang menjadi pertimbangan yang utama tidak terselesaikan dengan baik, walaupun mungkin muncul dampak positif lainnya.
  1. MEMANAJEMEN PEMECAHAN MASALAH
Menghadapi masalah dan memecahkannya secara berulang-ulang, dapat menjadikan kita dewasa dan memiliki filosofis hidup. Kekuatan filosofis kehi-dupan adalah sejauhmana kita bisa mene-mukan tujuan hakiki hidup ini.
Salah satu pendekatan yang kerap digunakan dalam memanajemen peme-cahan masalah adalah dengan menggunakan kiat terobosan (breaktrough oriented). Keahlian dalam terobosan ini tidak dalam bentuk proses bertahap, tetapi lebih kepada penggunaan Tujuh Kerangka Berpikir, sebagai berikut :
1. Originalitas dan Kemandirian
Pendekatan originalitas dan kemandirian ini menjadi dasar agar tidak selalu bertitik tolak pada permasalah biasa, tetapi masuk pada kondisi untuk mencari sesuatu yang baru dalam pemecahan masalah.
2. Menentukan Target
Menentukan target yang tepat dan berkonsentrasi kepadanya dengan menyortir kegiatan-kegiatan yang berhubungan langsung dengan target tersebut.
3. Memecahkan Masalah Berulang-ulang
Membuat model permasalahan yang terjadi, melakukan simulasi terhadapnya, dan mencoba model tersebut kepada permasalahan yang lain, lalu mensimulasinya kembali secara berulang-ulang, sehingga jawaban dari permasalahan yang terjadi memiliki sifat stabil.
4. Memiliki Sistem Khusus
Keberhasilan memecahkan suatu masalah akan memunculkan masa-lah lain. Hal ini karena satu masalah yang kita hadapi adalah bagian dari sistem permasalahan yang integeral, sehingga diperlukan sistem pemecahan masalah yang mencakup keleluasaan elemen dan dimensi permasalahan yang sedang dihadapi.
5. Mengumpulkan Informasi yang Akurat
Informasi yang akurat menentukan keberhasilan pemecahan masa-lah. Ini termasuk keahlian dalam mencari sumber informasi dan meracik berbagai informasi yang didapatkan.
6. Orientasi kepada Orang Lain
Pemecahan suatu masalah harus bersifat universal, sehingga setiap orang yang memiliki permasalahan yang sama bisa memecahkan masalah dengan menggunakan pendekatan yang pernah dilakukan pendahulunya.
7. Memperbaiki Jadwal dan Program Kerja
Kunci dalam memecahkan masalah yaitu menentukan tujuan atau target yang lebh besar, lalu menentukan pembaharuan sebagai antisipasi kemungkinan terjadinya masalah baru, lalu melakukan semua itu dengan keyakinan dan manajemen yang baik.
  1. PENUTUP
Demikianlah penyajian materi Problem Solving yang bisa dikemukakan pada kesempatan, semoga mendatangkan manfaat dan dapat dipraktek-kan dalam kehidupan sehari-hari, terutama dalam memajukan organi-sasi Ikatan Mahasiswa
PROBLEM SOLVING HUKUM
dipertanggungjawabkan secara hukum serta hakim selalu ragu dalam memberikan suatu putusan yang berkekuatan hukum tetap (in krakht van gewisjde). Dengan demikian salah satu tujuan hukum untuk dapat memberikan efek jera dan menjadi momentumpembelajaran hukum bagi pelaku tindak pidana dan masyarakat pada umumnya tak kunjung tampak.
Uraian berikut ini setidaknya dapat memberikan gambaran dan jawaban atas pertanyaan-pertanyaan tersebut di atas sekaligus dapat menjadi alternatif menambah wawasan bagi aparat penegak hukum dalam upaya menjadikan hukum sebagai rujukan (term of reference) dalam berkata-kata, bertingkah laku dan berkomunikasi dan dalam pengambilan keputusan hukum.Dalam teori hukum umum (Algemeine Rechtslehre) yang dikembangkan pada abad 19 di Eropa oleh Rudolf Stainberg dan filosof John Austin dari Inggris,penyelesaian masalah atau sengketa hukum (legal problem solving) selalu didasarkan pada teori pertanggungjawaban (imputentie theory) yang senantiasa menggunakan metode multy disipliner dalam menangani berbagai persoalan hukum.
Dalam menghadapi masalah-masalah hukum menurut teori ini, kepentingan umum menjadi indikator utama dalam memecahkan dan menyelesaikan persoalan-persoalan hukum.
Dalam tataran ini mestinya penegak hukum senantiasa menjadikan teori imputati sebagai pegangan utama ketika berhadapan dengan kasus-kasus korupsi. Dengan demikian kasus-kasus korupsi baik yang masuk 'Korupsi Kekuasaan', yaitu perbuatan yang mencederai kesejahteraan rakyat (bedreiging een aan tasting van net welzijn van de bevolking) maupun 'Korupsi Konvensional' (perbuatan yang merugikan keuangan negara untuk kepentingan diri sendiri atau kelompok) dapat ditangani secara bertanggung jawab dan senantiasa memberi kepastian hukum, keadilan dan kemanfaatan hukum bagi pelaku korupsi maupun masyarakat dan penegak hukum sendiri. Dalam mengelaborasi 'imputation theory' tersebutaparat penegak hukum selain harus selalu menggunakan interpretasi hukum juga diharapkan dapat menggunakan metode penalaran (konstruksi hukum) berupa analogi, penghalusan hukum (rechtvervijning) dan argumentum a contrario (baca Prof. Dr. Philipus M Hadjon, tentang 'Argumentasi Hukum') sehingga semua kasus yang dihadapi dapat dibuatkan legal opinion untuk kepentingan perumusan fakta hukum, isu hukum, analisis dan konklusi yang komprehensif, dan dapat dipertanggungjawabkan secara ilmiah dalam tataran hukum.
Dalam konteks kinerja aparat penegak hukum di NTT yang tidak maksimal kita dapat mencatat beberapa fakta sebagai indikator, seperti berlarut-larutnya proses penanganan kasus korupsi (kasus mark up gaji DPRD Belu periode 1999 - 2004) yang sudah ditangai aparat penyidik Polres Belu dan Kejaksaan Negeri Atambua empat tahun lalu sampai saat ini tenggelam bagai ditelan bumi tanpa suatu kejelasan kasusnya, sementara mereka yang terlibat masih tetap menyandang status sebagai tersangka.
Selain itu indikator lain yang juga menunjuk kinerja aparat yang tidak maksinal seperti tuntutan jaksa yang ditolak 100 persen dalam proses persidangan dimana putusan hakim membebaskan terdakwa (vide putusan bebas yang diberikan pada mantan Kapolres Manggarai, Boni Tompoi), dan juga penghentian penyidikan bagi kasus korupsi yang melibatkan anggota DPRD hanya karena ada judicial review terhadap PP 110/2000 mengindikasikan aparat penegak hukum kita tidak secara berani membuat terobosan dalam menerapkan hukum khusus dalam perkara korupsi, padahal kasus korupsi adalah kejahatan yang dikategorikan sebagai 'extraordinary crime'.
Untuk dapat menyelesaikan kasus-kasus hukum, utamanya kasus korupsi dengan baik dan bertanggung jawab, beberapa alternatif jalan keluar dapat dikemukakan berikut ini. Pertama, para penegak hukum dan tentunya juga masyarakat pencari keadilan harus memiliki rujukan (term of reference) yang sama tentang regulasi yang digunakan dalam memroses suatu tindak pidana (Strafbaar Feit) korupsi yag masuk dalam lapangan kajian hukum pidana khusus, yaitu hukum material seperti UU 31/1999 tentang pemberantasan tindak pidana korupsi yang diubah dengan UU No. 20/2001 tentang perubahan UU No 31/1999 dan hukum formil seperti KUHAP yang diatur dalam UU No. 8/1981. Kejelasan rujukan ini sangat penting agar tercipta suatu pemahaman, penafsiran dan upaya pemecahan masalah hukum yang transparan, dapat dikontrol elemen-elemen masyarakat demi terciptanya rasa keadilan, kepastian dan kemanfaatan hukum itu sendiri. Dalam tataran ini sering terjadi kemandekan dalam proses penyelesaian BAP yang dibuat penyidik dengan tahapan pembuatan requisitoir (tuntutan) jaksa sehingga proses penanganannya pun terkesan diulur-ulur, tidak pasti dan cenderung digunakan oleh otoritas untuk kepentingan-kepentingan yang tidak produktif dalam upaya menjadikan hukum sebagai patokan semua kegiatan kemasyarakatan.
Menurut teori hukum, legal problem solving dalam tataran ini adalah dengan menerbitkan surat penghentian penyidikan dan atau penghentian penuntutan perkara sebagaimana telah diatur dalam KUHAP. Dengan demikian selain ada kepastian hukum dan tidak terkesan adanya penghancuran karakter bagi para tersangka semata. Penyidik jika telah dengan tegas dan berani memulai proses kasus korupsi karena adanya bukti permulaan(prima fatie evident) yang kuat
harus berani pula memastikan prosesnya apakah berlanjut atau dapat dihentikan jika ternyata secara legal tidak dapat dilanjutkan kendati dalam tataran ini pula persoalan HAM dapat diperdebatkan lagi.
Kedua, diperlukan suatu kemampuan akademik dan keterampilan praktis bagi aparat penyidik kasus korupsi agar tidak terjadi ketidakpastian dalam proses dan tahapan penanganan masalahnya dari tahapan pengumpulan fakta berdasarkan alat bukti sampai pada tahapan klasifikasi hakekat permasalahan hukum untuk membedakannya atas hukum publik dan hukum privat serta tahapan identifikasi dan pemilihan isu hukum yang relevan untuk dapat menetapkan unsur-unsur pidana dan bahkan dalam tahapan penemuan hukum yang tepat untuk kasus yang ditangani sertapenerapan hukum yang dapat memberi kepastian dalam prosesnya. (Prof. Dr. Philipus M. Hadjon, SH "Langkah-langkah Analisis Hukum", hal. 40-44).
Kapasitas keilmuan dan teknis ini diperlukan karena selain Hukum Pembuktian Tindak Pidana Korupsi diyakini sangat sulit (baca lebih lanjut buku "Hukum Pembuktian Tindak Pidana Korupsi", Drs. Adam Ghazawi, SH) juga karena modus operandinya melibatkan suatu sindikasi yang rumit dan di-back up struktur kekuasaan politik ekonomi yang kuat dan berlapis sehingga korupsi sering tidak dapat dijangkau oleh hukum (Untouchable by Law-Edward Shils, 1981, 32).
Dalam konteks inilah sebetulnya menurut Prof. Dr. Sadjipto Rahardjo, SH, dalam memberantas korupsi, aparat penegak hukum harus bisa berpikir luar biasa dengan mematahkan aturan lama (rule breaking) dan membuat aturan baru (rule making) dan membebaskan diri dari konsep, doktrin serta asas-asas klasik konvensional seperti non retroaktif danpersumption of innocence.
Ketiga, bahwa dalam konteks 'politik hukum' perlu sekali dipertimbangkan penerapan asas pembuktian terbalik (omkering van de bewijslast) dimana terdakwa juga harus dapat membuktikan dalam proses hukum bahwa ia tidak dapat diproses sebagai pelaku tindak pidana (Pasal 37 UU No. 31/1999). Penerapan asas ini diperlukan agar selain dapat memberi ruang yang memadai bagi setiap orang untuk dapat mendapatkan keadilan yang seadil-adilnya, juga agar dapat mempermudah proses pembuktian tindak pidana korupsi karena telah menjadi antinomi dimana tuntutan akan keadilan dalam masyarakat selalu bentrok dengan tuntutan untuk kepastian hukum dimana keadaan ini oleh Van Apeldoorn dikenal dengan istilah summum ius, summa iniuria (keadilan yang tertinggi adalah ketidakadilan yang tertinggi).
Ada pun penerapan asas ini secara formil tidaklah mudah dilakukan karena sistem hukum yang kita anut yaitu Eropa Kontinental yang tidak memberi ruang untuk itu, tetapi sebetulnya dapat dilakukan dalam tataran secara material dalam proses persidangan dimana seorang terdakwa dapat memberi keterangan yang sekaligus membuktikan bahwa ia tidak dapat disangka sebagai seorang koruptor.
Jalan keluar atau terobosan ini diperlukan dalam penerapan dan interpretasi hukum menyusul adanya putusan Mahkamah Konstitusi No 003/PUU-IV/2006 yang menyatakan ketentuan penjelasan pasal 2 ayat (1) UU pemberantasan tindak pidana korupsi perihal sifat melawan hukum material yang tidak mengikat secara hukum.
One Day Workshop
Easy Method to Problem Solving
( Cara pemecahan masalah dan membuat keputusan )
Tanggal 24-25 November 2008 di Hotel/ JaCC Tanabang
Ketika dihadapkan suatu masalah kita berpikir dan bertanya pada diri sendiri maupun anggota tim bahwa kita pernah memecahkan masalah yang sama dahulu tetapi tetap merasa sulit untuk mencari solusi untuk masalah yang sama kali ini. Jika ini pernah terjadi maka betapa tidak efektifnya bila lagi-lagi kita mencurahkan waktu dan upaya pada proyek yang sama.
Permasalahan muncul sewaktu-waktu. Asumsi yang mendasarinya pun berubah setiap saat. Barangkali solusi kita dahulu hanya suatu quick fix, hanya merupakan solusi sementara yang tidak memecahkan masalah secara permanen.
Pelatihan ini akan membantu anda karena didalamnya diajarkan pendekatan yang sudah teruji untuk memecahkan masalah. Model Pemecahan Masalah Enam Langkah yang mengikuti jalan yang logis, dimulai dengan mengidentifikasikan masalah secara jelas dan menuju kepada suatu rencana tindakan untuk memecahkan.
Materi yang disajikan dalam pelatihan ini bisa digunakan sebagai pedoman untuk memecahkan masalah secara sistematis. Pelatihan ini akan melatih Anda untuk menempuh seluruh dasar pemecahan masalah dan membantu untuk memastikan objektivitas. Selain itu, seluruh materi dalam pelatihan ini bisa berfungsi sebagai alat bantu agar Anda berhasil memanajemeni orang dalam suatu tim pemecahan masalah.
A. Tujuan dan Manfaat Pelatihan
  1. Memahami dasar pemecahan masalah secara sistematis
  2. Meningkatkan ketrampilan untuk memecahkan masalah dan membuat keputusan.
  3. Menjadikan kinerja organisasi lebih efektif dan efisien dengan pemecahan solusi yang tepat
4. Tujuan:
5.  Melatih kecerdasan dan kreativitas dalam memecahkan persoalan
6.  Membangun kerja sama kelompok dalam menyelesaikan suatu masalah
7.  Mengasah kebijaksanaan dalam mengambil keputusan atau pilihan
8.  Meningkatkan ketajaman melihat medan atau persoalan
9.  Meningkatkan keberanian berpendapat dan berinisiatif
10.  Membangun habitus bermusyawarah atau diskusi bersama
11. Refleksi:
12. Allah menganugerahkan akal budi kepada manusia. Akal budi ini memampukan manusia untuk memiliki kebebasan sekaligus kemampuan untuk mengambil pilihan atau keputusan. Sementara itu, hidup manusia adalah hidup penuh permasalahan dan kesulitan. Akal budi manusia berfungsi untuk memecahkan segala persoalan yang ada dengan mencari solusi yang tepat dan mengambil keputusan bijaksana yang dapat dipertanggungjawabkan.
13. Oleh karena keterbatasan akal budi, seringkali manusia membutuhkan bantuan dari orang lain. Pembukaan ruang bagi diskusi bersama mencari jalan paling tepat dan benar perlu diadakan. Masing-masing pribadi memiliki pandangan dan gagasan yang dapat memperdalam eksplorasi solusi dan kematangan menimbang. Semakin banyak orang terlibat, kemungkinan ketepatan solusi dan kebijaksanaan pilihan lebih terjamin mutunya.
14. Teknis:
15.  Siapkan perlengkapan dan pasang sedemikian rupa botol yang berisi materi problem solving di tembok/dam air terjun. (tinggi botol tersebut kira-kira dapat dijangkau oleh orang yang dipanggul/diangkat).
16.  Ajak peserta/kelompok untuk bergandengan tangan sampai di tembok/dam air terjun. Kemudian perintahkan untuk mengambil botol yang berisi materi problem solving tersebut.
17.  Apabila belum berhasil, ulangi sampai peserta berhasil mengambil botol yang berisi materi problem solving
18.  Bila peserta berhasil mengambil botol yang berisi materi problem solving, ajaklah peserta untuk membahas materi itu dengan kelompoknya.
19.  Beri pertanyaan-pertanyaan yang kritis kepada setiap peserta dalam menjawab materi problem solving.
20.  Perhatikan setiap dinamika yang ada pada peserta/kelompok.
21. Alat:
22.  botol plastik (botol air mineral)
23.  tali (rafia/tampar)
24.  dinding air terjun/dam/tembok/alternatif tempat lain yang memungkinkan peserta sungguh dapat bekerja keras untuk mendapatkan bahan/materi problem solving
25.  materi problem solving
26.  kertas jebakan (bukan materi); contoh: kertas yang bertuliskan “Anda belum beruntung”, “salah lagi… salah lagi… kacian deh loe…”, dll.
McKinsey Problem Solving Test Coaching Guide
THREE CORE AREAS ON WHICH TO FOCUS
We have identified three areas with associated key actions, that when properly combined,may be helpful on the problem solving test. These are:
Absorbing: Identifying essentials
Solving: Employing shortcuts
Executing: Managing time
Absorbing: Identifying essentials
Read the questions before the text/ graphs/ tables. Text and exhibits are followed by a set of questions. Read the questions and scan the answers in a section before reading the text and exhibits. As you read, circle the important words. This will allow you to read the text and data/ graphs/ tables with a purpose.
Speed-read text. As you read through the text quickly, circle or underline any information that you think is relevant to answering the questions. You do not have to read every word in order to get the gist of the textual information.
Pay close attention to data/ graphs/ tables. Data/ graphs/ tables are likely to hold information needed to answer many of the test questions. When reading this type of information ensure you have noted the title, legend, labels of the axes and the units for each item.
Solving: Employing shortcuts
Structure your approach. Before answering a question decide on your approach. Since every second counts you do not want to waste time working out things youdo not need to, or simply churning data. Make sure you have truly understood whatyou need to work out and how you will do it before beginning to solve.
Approximate. Often questions may seem to call for you to perform complicatedmaths. Given the time limit, this would be very difficult. There will often be ashortcut that will allow you to save time and avoid tricky calculations. Often theshortcut involves rounding numbers to make them more manageable.
Eliminate. Your approach for many questions will be to eliminate incorrectanswers in order to find the correct answer. By working out approximate answers as suggested above you can rule out some options quickly and increase the odds of a correct choice.
Executing: Managing time
The quantitative test contains 26 questions and has a 60 minute time limit. With only a little over 2 minutes per question, there is clearly time pressure. A few techniques can help you to better manage how you use your time.
Keep calculations organized. When you need to perform calculations during the test, keep your work for each question to a separate, well-marked area. This will keep your calculations organised, reducing the time you spend checking your work and searching for information you have already recorded/worked out.
Transfer answers in groups. When you decide on the answer to a question, write the answer to the left of the answers on your test paper. Then when you finish a set of questions transfer your answers to the answer sheet all at once. This will save you time and decrease your chances of mis-shading.
Be disciplined. Resist the temptation to spend a long time on any one question, and skip questions that immediately appear too difficult. Once you have completed other areas you can always return to earlier questions. You can also leave notes of your initial thoughts next to the question in order to remind yourself later when you
return.
Ensure test completion. It is very difficult to finish every question in the allotted time, so when there is 15 minutes left in the test pick up your pace. Ensure you are able to alert yourself to the fact that you have limited time left, and endeavour to shade in an answer for every question. There is no penalty for wrong answers.
ANSWER GUIDE, PART I
Test Section 1, Questions 1-4
Question 1
Absorbing. In the question you should circle the words “CEO” and “FoodInc’s requirements.” Then when you speed-read the text you are able to circle the “requirements,” which are contained in the last paragraph (sales growth of 10% or more in the last two periods).
Solving. Instead of labelling each of the last two nodes on the 4 scenarios and then calculating the percentage increase on each, first stop check for a shortcut. In order to have greater than 10% growth each year, each of the line segments will need to be greater than 10%. You can eliminate Scenario D without churning numbers; the slope of its last segment is not steep enough.
Executing. This calls for a calculation in a separate space, so you should write a number 1 in front of the calculation and solve in that space.
Question 2
Absorbing. Words to circle: “if done alone,” “not help address” and “objectives of CEO.” This helps you to note the CEO’s objectives, which are in the last paragraph of text.
Question 3
Absorbing. Words to circle: “valid” and “Table 1.”
Solving. Eliminate. For B, if revenue is $366.7 now then it must have been much less than $350 5 years ago. For C it is impossible to say for certain it never went less than 1.2%. Eliminate D because total sales must have grown (the only thing that lost money was other products but that was only 15 million total). You can select choice A and check it later if you have time. (The easiest way to check A is to start with 20 and subtract 5%, an approximation, each year. The other way is to start with 15.1 and add back 7.1% each year. Starting with 20 is clearly easier.)
Question 4
Absorbing. There are many key words in this question: “Kosher Franks' revenue,” “year 4,” “scenario C,” and “Exhibit 1.”
Solving. This is maths. Scenario C year 4 is approximately 120% of year 0 sales. Scan your text and exhibits for numbers. Approximate instead of adding exact numbers: 365 + 65 + 55 + 15 = 500. 120% of 500 = 600. Executing. Clearly mark the space you use for your calculation on question 4.
Test Section 2, Question 5
Question 5
Executing. You have come to a new set of questions with their own bold text box. It isrecommended that you transfer over your answers for 1-4 onto the bubble sheet.
Absorbing. Circle: “if true would not” and “most consumers” “Jewish.”
Solving. Eliminate. Eliminate C because awareness probably correlates with purchase. Eliminate D because Jewish shoppers probably mean Jewish buyers.
Executing. If you find that you are down to two remaining answers and cannot decide, make sure to use your time wisely, which might mean to come back to this question at the end of the test.
Test Section 3, Question 6-8
Question 6
Absorbing. Circle: “if true,” “against,” “price reduction,” and “Los Angeles”
Solving. Eliminate A- if customers buy on taste then the price will not change anything. B
is not a good enough reason. D: this is about pickles so unrelated. Only C is left.
Question 7
Absorbing. Circle: “average profit,” “dollars per hot dog,” and “before campaign.”
Note the units: dollars per hot dog not dollars per package (of 6 hot dogs).
Solving. Decide your approach before launching in on the maths. Try to come up with an
equation. Profit = profit margin x price to buyer (in this case the grocery store) = 20% x
$10 = $2. Now you have the profit per pack, but you need the profit per hot dog. This is
$2/ 6.
Executing. You are approximately halfway through the entire practice test. If more than
15 minutes has expired, work more quickly.
Question 8
Absorbing. Circle most of the question: “payback,” “first year,” “percentage increase,”
“number hot dogs,” “first year,” and “pay back advertising.”
Solving. Decide an equation. There are multiple ways to get this answer, but the method
described in the answer key is easiest. If you take a different path in solving the maths,
and you feel you are taking a long time (more than 3 minutes), then you probably missed
the shortcut.
Executing. Remember to write down the units for the numbers you are scribbling.
5 o f 6
Instructions
Try to complete questions 1-8 again, but try to employ the techniques above. Give
yourself 19 minutes to complete the first 8 questions.
ANSWER GUIDE, PART II
Instructions
Answer questions 9-13 on your own using the techniques explained above. Give yourself
11 minutes for the 5 questions.
Test Section 4, Question 9
Question 9
Absorbing. Circle: “if true,” “best support,” “marketing manager.” “Best” suggests that
you will have to read all answer choices and then compare.
Test Section 5, Question 10-11
Question 10
Executing. Reading questions 10 and 11 first allows you to find out that your approach
will be to check each of the answers back to the main text.
Absorbing. Circle: “neither” and “two cities” in the question.
Absorbing. Since there is a large amount of text, circle key words in the text. Circle one
word in each box that will allow you to scan quickly when answering the question.
Potential words to circle (from left to right and then down): dominant brand, weak brand,
increase loyalty, priced modest, high premium, price-sensitive, no switching, mixed
promotions, strong marketing, and new customer.
Question 11
Absorbing. Circle: “best suit” and “city 2.” Again the word “best” suggests to you that
you will have to compare the answers and make a judgment.
Test Section 6, Question 12
Question 12
Executing. You have 4 minutes for the last two questions.
Solving. Eliminate
6 o f 6
Test Section 7, Question 13
Question 13
Absorbing. Circle: “concerns” and “CEO.” When you go to read the text, scan for the
word “CEO” and focus on that sentence.
10 Tips for Teaching Problem Solving
1. “The worst thing that can happen is to go along through a full hour without any questions. That might mean two things: a very remote possibility that you are extremely clear, but more often than not that you are not clear at all.” --Dr. Umran Inan
2. Try beginning each segment of a class by setting up a problem and explaining why it is interesting and important.
3. Rather than asking students to memorize a formula, teach them how to derive the formula and identify its parts.
4. Try the step by step approach to solve problems. Ask small questions along the way so that students can see how the solution is being calculated and can confront similar questions with the same strategy.
5. Encourage students to imagine ways of solving the problem before you begin to work the solution together. This takes advantage of the skills the students already have and encourages them to actively extend their knowledge.
6. When you call on students, try asking them to state a proposed method for solving the problem rather than asking them for the solution to a problem. For example, ask “how should I begin to work on this problem?” instead of “what is the answer to this problem?”
7. Encourage questions from the class and then avoid answering them directly. Make sure everyone hears and understands the question and then start working on an answer as a group.
8. If you maintain a high degree of interaction with the audience throughout the class, they may be more willing to participate and ask questions. The earlier in the class the students are encouraged to talk, the more likely it is that they will contribute for the rest of the class session.
9. Try solving the problem in two different ways. This gives students a sense of how best to approach a problem, and it may prevent mistakes. This technique also holds the studentsʼ attention because they will want to see if the answer is the same in both cases.
10. To help the students to learn to formulate problems as well as to find answers to problems, present students with situations or design problems and encourage them to develop questions for themselves. This enables students to see how work is done at higher levels in their discipline.
11. Before moving on to the new concept, try asking students specific questions about a representative problem to test for learning. Students will often avoid responding to general questions such as “Does everyone understand?” A more specific question will help you to determine how well the audience is working with the material.
* This handout adapted from information in Teaching at Stanford: An Introductory Handbook for Faculty, Academic Staff/Teaching, and Teaching Assistants, 1989. Adaptation by Nancy Plooster, TA Development Program; University of California, Santa Barbara, 1997
Problem solving can take many forms but, if you try problem solving without any structure, you may end up with a bigger problem.
Dalam permainan catur sesungguhnya, tingkat kesulitan dalam pengambilan keputusan akan lebih sulit lagi, karena tidak ada yang memberi petunjuk bahwa kita menang dalam 3 langkah dan sebagainya. Kita harus mendeteksinya sendiri.

Dalam kehidupan sehari-hari, kita sering dihadapkan pada pertanyaan "Selesaikan masalah ini" dan tipe kedua "Temukan apakah ada masalah?".

"Selesaikan masalah ini" adalah tugas yang lebih mudah dibandingkan kita harus mencari tahu apakah ada permasalahan atau tidak.

Ujian terberat dari ketrampilan (skill) dan naluri (intuisi) terjadi pada saat segalanya nampak tenang dan kita tidak yakin apa yang harus kita lakukan atau apakah kita harus melakukan sesuatu atau tidak.

Banyak orang menganggap ELO atau Rating di catur adalah sebuah singkatan seperti FIDE atau NASA. Sesungguhnya istilah ELO berasal dari seorang bernama Arpad Emre Elo.

Profesor Elo adalah seorang fisikawan terkemuka yang lahir pada 25 Agustus 1903 di Hungaria, dan dia dikenal karena menciptakan sistem rating di catur yang diterima dengan baik oleh publik.

Beliau juga seorang pemain catur yang kuat, pernah menjuarai kejuaraan Wisconsin State sebanyak 8 kali. Rekornya termasuk 40 kali memenangkan turnamen, termasuk 2 kali menahan draw seorang master terkenal bernama Rueben Fine. Dia dipilih sebagai presiden Federasi Catur Amerika di tahun 1935 dan salah satu pendiri USCF (United State ChessFederation) di tahun 1939.

Di tahun 1959, USCF meminta Arpad Elo untuk mengembangkan sebuah sistem rating catur untuk digunakan di komunitas catur Amerika. Elo mengemukakan sistem baru dengan basis statistik berdasarkan kurva lonceng. Menurut sistem ini, rating seorang pemain rata-rata adalah 1500, seorang pemain klub yang kuat sekitar 2000, dan seorang granmaster sekitar 2500.

System ELO ini akhirnya diterapkan oleh USCF pada tahun 1960 dan oleh FIDE (asosiasi catur dunia) di tahun 1970.

World Chess Hall of Fame mencatat: Kreativitas, integritas, dan kemampuan statistik Professor Elo disegani tidak hanya di negaranya saja tapi secara mendunia. Dalam kapasitasnya sebagai chairman di FIDE selama sedikitnya 15 tahun, beliau bertanggungjawab memastikan pemain mana yang berhak mendapahkan gelar international dan mana yang tidak.

Sistem ELO ini pada intinya adalah : mengukur performansi seorang pemain dibandingkan lawannya. Misalkan seorang pemain dengan rating ELO 2600 dan kalah melawan pemain dengan rating ELO 2400, maka dia akan kehilangan sejumlah rating point, demikian pula bila hanya draw, dia akan kehilangan sejumlah point. Dan sebaliknya : pemain dengan rating ELO lebih rendah bila menang atau menahan draw pemain dengan rating ELO diatasnya, maka dia akan mendapat sejumlah kenaikan point berdasarkan rumus tertentu. Semakin besar perbedaan rating antar kedua pemain tersebut, maka selisih penambahan dan pengurangan ratingnya akan semakin besar, dan sebaliknya.

Rating tertinggi yang pernah dicapai sepanjang sejarah adalah 2851, oleh mantan juara dunia Garry Kasparov.
Mantan juara dunia lain Bobby Fischer dan Anatoly Karpov masing-masing pernah mencapai rating tertinggi 2785 dan 2780.

Daftar 10 besar rating dunia tertinggi saat ini (per July 2007) untuk pemain yang masih aktif :

1. Viswanathan Anand (India) - 2792
2. Veselin Topalov, (Bulgaria) - 2769
3. Vladimir Kramnik (Rusia) - 2769
4. Vassily Ivanchuk (Ukrainia) - 2762
5. Alexander Morozevich (Rusia) - 2758
6. Shakhriyar Mamedyarov (Azerbaijan) -2757
7. Peter Leko (Hungaria) - 2751
8. Levon Aronian (Armenia) - 2750
9. Teimour Radjabov (Azerbaijan) - 2746
10. Dmitry Jakovenko (Rusia) – 2735
Seperti yang Benjamin Franklin pernah katakan : Permainan Catur bukan cuma sekedar hiburan iseng belaka. Kita dapat melatih beberapa ketrampilan hidup (life skills) melalui permainan ini. Salah satunya (pengambilan keputusan sulit) akan dipaparkan dibawah ini.
Sering kali dalam dalam hidup, kita menghadapi situasi dimana kita harus memilih di antara pilihan yang sulit. Pilihan yang menentukan masa depan kita, apakah akan menjadi pemenang atau menjadi pecundang.
Dalam permainan catur, kita dilatih untuk mengambil keputusan sulit dan menentukan tersebut. Pengambilan keputusan itu selain membutuhkan wawasan, pengetahuan dan dasar-dawar pertimbangan yang tepat, juga seringkali memerlukan kemampuan intuisi (naluri) dan keberanian menempuh resiko yang terukur.
Diagram dibawah ini terjadi dari partai Topalov (Putih) vs Sasikiran (Hitam) di Turnament MTel Master, bulan Mei 2007.Partai ini terjadi di babak terakhir (babak ke-10), di langkah ke 32.. Bila Topalov memenangkan partai ini, maka ia akan menjadi juara-1, bila draw menjadi runner-up, dan bila dia kalah akan terlempar dari 2-besar. Sedangkan pemain Hitam (Sasikiran) cukup bermain draw saja akan menjadi juara-1 dalam turnamen ini.
Dengan posisi Putih lebih baik, Topalov (Putih) mengambil keputusan yang berani namun terukur dengan mengorbankan Kuda di petak h5, dan memberikan tekanan hebat terhadap Hitam, membuat komplikasi sekaligus membuat peluang menang menjadi terbuka.
Pada akhirnya Sasikiran (Hitam) yang berada dalam tekanan berat baik dalam partai maupun psikologis, membuat satu kesalahan saja di langkah ke-38 (38...Qe7?, seharusnya 39...Qd4 dengan kemungkinan draw amat besar), dan berbuah kemenangan manis untuk Topalov.
Notasi lengkap partai tersebut :


Catatan : N=Knight (Kuda), B=Bishop (Gajah), R=Rook (Benteng), Q=Queen (Menteri), K=King (Raja)
Dalam kejadian nyata, keberhasilan seseorang tidak lepas dari ketepatan pilihan pada saat kesempatan datang. Keberhasilan seorang legenda KungFu Bruce Lee tidak lepas dari ketepatan pilihannya dalam satu peristiwa hidupnya. Setelah berlari dari Hongkong ke Amerika, Bruce Lee bekerja sebagai tukang cuci pada sebuah restaurant Cina di Amerika. Pada suatu waktu, majikan wanitanya memberikan pinjaman uang kepada Bruce Lee. Pinjaman ini boleh digunakan untuk apa saja, bersenang-senang dengan April, kekasihnya pada saat itu atau apa saja. Bruce Lee memilih menggunakan uang itu untuk melanjutkan kuliah. Ini merupakan pilihan yang tepat yang menjadi pilar awal keberhasilannya menuju suatu lingkungan yang lebih baik. Karena pilihan tepat tersebut, Bruce Lee menjadi legenda sampai sekarang. Bagaimana bila Bruce Lee memilih untuk menghabiskan uang itu untuk bersenang-senang saja dengan kekasihnya? Mungkin sampai saat kematiannya, ia tetap menjadi tukang cuci piring.

Dalam hidup kita pun banyak pilihan yang akan kita ambil. Keberhasilan merupakan suatu rangkaian pilihan tepat yang kita ambil saat kesempatan atau masalah datang. Hidup adalah segala hal mengenai pilihan. Pilihanmulah yang membuat hidupmu menjadi lebih hidup.

KRISTIADI, Pengaruh Penggunaan Strategi Pembelajaran Problem Solving Terhadap Prestasi Belajar Siswa Pada Mata Pelajaran IPS Ditinjau Dari Minat Belajar Siswa (Studi Eksperimen Pada SMP Sub Rayon Wuryantoro)
Tesis. Surakarta : Program Pasca Sarjana Universitas Sebelas Maret 2007
Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui : (1). ada tidaknya perbedaan pengaruh yang signifikan penggunaan strategi pembelajaran problem solving, strategi pembelajaran inquiry dan strategi pembelajaran ekspositori terhadap prestasi belajar siswa pada mata pelajaran IPS, (2). ada tidaknya perbedaan pengaruh yang siginifikan antara minat belajar tinggi dan minat belajar rendah terhadap prestasi belajar pada mata pelajaran IPS, dan (3). ada tidaknya interaksi penggunaan strategi pembelajaran dan minat belajar siswa terhadap prestasi belajar pada mata pelajaran IPS.
Penelitian dilakukan di Sekolah Menengah Pertama (SMP) Sub Rayon Wuryantoro pada tahun pelajaran 2007/2008 yang berlangsung pada bulan Juli – Desember 2007. Jenis Penelitian adalah kuasi eksperimen dengan menggunakan desain analisis 2 X3. Populasi penelitian adalah siswa SMP Sub Rayon Wuryantoro dan sub populasi adalah siswa kelas VII (tujuh) sebagai sampel yang diambil secara acak sebanyak 120 siswa. Pengambilan sampel dilakukan dengan teknik purposive random sampling. Data prestasi belajar diperoleh dengan memberikan tes prestasi belajar IPS sedangkan data minat belajar siswa diperoleh melalui angket dengan skala berjenjang. Berdasarkan median dari skor angket maka minat belajar siswa dibagi menjadi kelompok minat belajar tinggi dan kelompok minat belajar rendah. Setelah data diperoleh kemudian dikelompokkan ke dalam masing-masing sel dan dianalisis melalui statistik anava dua jalan dengan desain analyisis 2 X3 dengan sel sama dalam taraf signifikansi 0,05
Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa : (1) terdapat perbedaan pengaruh yang signifikan penggunaan strategi pembelajaran problem solving, strategi pembelajaran Inquiry dan strategi pembelajaran ekspositori terhadap prestasi belajar siswa pada mata pelajaran IPS dimana F hitung > F tabel atau 11,958 > 3,07 ( p <> F tabel atau 55,887 > 3,92 (p <> F tabel atau 4,016 > 3,07 ( p < 0,05 ) Hasil uji lanjut dengan metode scheffe membuktikan bahwa interaksi tersebut sangat berarti.
Kesimpulan dari penelitian ini adalah prestasi belajar siswa dengan penerapan strategi pembelajaran problem solving ternyata lebih tinggi dibandingkan dengan prestasi yang diperoleh siswa dengan penerapan strategi pembelajaran Inquiry dan strategi pembelajaran ekspositori, tetapi hanya untuk kompetensi tertentu sedangkan pada kompetensi yang lain mungkin lebih cocok dengan menggunakan strategi pembelajaran inquiry atau strategi pembelajaran ekspositori. Semakin tinggi minat belajar siswa semakin tinggi pula prestasi belajarnya. Dengan demikian strategi pembelajaran dan minat belajar siswa secara bersama-sama mempunyai peranan yang sangat penting dalam meningkatkan prestasi belajar siswa pada mata pelajaran IPS

Teaching Tips for TAs:
10 SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHING PROBLEM
SOLVING



"The worst thing that can happen is to go along through a full hour without any questions. That might mean two things: a very remote possibility that you are extremely clear, but more often than not that you are not clear at all." --Dr. Umran Inan
1. Try beginning each segment of a class by setting up a problem and explaining why it is interesting and important.
2. Rather than asking students to memorize a formula, teach them how to derive the formula and identify its parts.
3. Try the step by step approach to solve problems. Ask small questions along the way so that students can see how the solution is being calculated and can confront similar questions with the same strategy.
4. Encourage students to imagine ways of solving the problem before you begin to work the solution together. This takes advantage of the skills the students already have and encourages them to actively extend their knowledge.
5. When you call on students, try asking them to state a proposed method for solving the problem rather than asking them for the solution to a problem. For example, ask "how should I begin to work on this problem?" instead of "what is the answer to this problem?"
6. Encourage questions from the class and then avoid answering them directly. Make sure everyone hears and understands the question and then start working on an answer as a group.
7. If you maintain a high degree of interaction with the audience throughout the class, they may be more willing to participate and ask questions. The earlier in the class the students are encouraged to talk, the more likely it is that they will contribute for the rest of the class session.
8. Try solving the problem in two different ways. This gives students a sense of how best to approach a problem, and it may prevent mistakes. This technique also holds the students' attention because they will want to see if the answer is the same in both cases.
9. To help the students to learn to formulate problems as well as to find answers to problems, present students with situations or design problems and encourage them to develop questions for themselves. This enables students to see how work is done at higher levels in their discipline.
10. Before moving on to the new concept, try asking students specific questions about a representative problem to test for learning. Students will often avoid responding to general questions such as "Does everyone understand?" A more specific question will help you to determine how well the audience is working with the material.
11. Configuration design adalah bentuk desain dimana sekumpulan komponen predefined diberikan dan sekumpulan komponen terpilih dicari, dengan memenuhi sekumpulan requirement dan tidak melanggar constraint. Configuration design memiliki tiga syarat: komponen, parameter, dan assembly. Komponen-komponen yang ditentukan sebelumnya diassembly (disusun) sehingga sesuai parameter (requirement dan constraint).
12.
13. Configuration design berbeda dari tipe desain lain pada dua hal, yaitu:
14. 1. Tidak ada jenis komponen baru yang bisa didesain
15. 2. Sekumpulan requirement dan constraint diasumsikan telah lengkap.
16.
17.
18. Penjelasan:
19. a. Komponen
20. - Kumpulan yang fixed : komponen penyusun sudah fix. Contoh : sekumpulan aktivitas yang akan diatur urutan pelaksanaannya berdasarkan waktu.
21. - Kumpulan yang fixed, namun berparameter: komponen penyusun sudah fix, memiliki parameter yang akan menentukan pemilihan komponen. Contoh : untuk merakit sebuah mobil, komponen-komponennya sudah fix, tinggal memilih yang nilainya memenuhi requirement.
22. - Sekumpulan tipe komponen berparameter : terdapat berbagai tipe komponen, yang akan dipilih berdasarkan nilai parameternya. Contoh : menu makanan pada jadwal makan, memiliki jenis menu yang berbeda – beda.
23.
24. b. Assembly
25. - Fixed : Susunan solusi dan relasi antar komponen telah fix. Contoh : untuk merakit sebuah komputer susunan/relasi antar komponen telah fix.
26. - Diberikan skeletal : Skeletal/kerangka solusi diberikan, susunan solusi belum fix. Contoh : pada lego, telah diberikan gambaran/kerangka bentuk yang akan dibuat, namun blok penyusun yang akan digunakan dan hubungan antar blok masih harus ditentukan.
27. - Bebas : Susunan solusi dan relasi antar komponen tidak diberikan. Contoh : pada lego, tidak diberikan gambaran/kerangka bentuk yang akan dibuat.
28.
29. c. Requirement dan Constraint
30. - Lokal, dapat dipakai secara langsung dan lengkap : Langsung berhubungan dengan komponen. Contoh : pada penyusunan menu makanan, tidak memasukkan udang bagi orang yang alergi dengan udang.
31. - Dapat dipakai secara inkremental : bagian lokal assembly, tapi hanya bisa dicek ketika bagian lain sudah didesain. Contoh : pada desain setelan pakaian, pengecekan warna dan model sepatu dilakukan setelah pakaian atasan dan bawahan ditentukan.
32. - Fungsional dan/atau global : terkait dengan properti susunan komponen, dievaluasi pada keseluruhan susunan solusi. Contoh : total berat muatan barang pada truk tidak boleh melebihi berat tertentu.
33.
34. Tiga kategori persoalan berdasarkan susunan kejelasan solusi:
35. 1. Parametric design : persoalan konfigurasi dimana susunan dari solusi sudah fix, problem solving hanya mencari komponen yang memiliki value sesuai yang diinginkan.
36. 2. Skeletal design : persoalan konfigurasi dimana skeleton/kerangka dari susunan solusi diberikan, namun konfigurasi yang fix masih harus dicari.
37. 3. Full configuration design : persoalan konfigurasi dimana susunan solusi tidak didefinisikan sebelumnya, proses problem solving mencari sendiri susunan yang sesuai dengan requirement dan tidak melanggar constraint.
38.
39. Pada gambar dibawah ini dipaparkan mengenai klasifikasi dari pengetahuan Configuration design problem solving. Problem-spesific knowledge adalah pengetahuan yang hanya valid pada kondisi tertentu saja (dalam sistem pakar, kondisi yang berlaku untuk satu klien yang sedang konsultasi). Pengetahuan ini ada kalanya diinputkan oleh user, sebagai fasilitas untuk mengatakan kebutuhannya. Persistence knowledge adalah pengetahuan yang valid untuk semua problem solving berikutnya namun tentang domain persoalan yang sama.
40.
41. Metode penyelesaian masalah configuration-design problem solving yaitu:
42. a. Case-based methods
43. Metode ini berdasarkan asumsi bahwa pengetahuan tentang solusi dari masalah konfigurasi direpresentasikan secara eksplisit. Cara yang digunakan adalah select-and-verify, yaitu mendapat inputan parameter lalu mencari kasus yang paling sesuai dengan parameter masukan, kemudian menampilkan solusinya.
44. b. Propose, Critique, and Modify (PCM) methods
45. Prinsip umumnya yaitu mengajukan konfigurasi, yang pada subsolusinya diuji dengan requirement dan constraint. Jika terdapat pelanggaran, maka dimodifikasi untuk memindahkan konflik. Dapat juga dilakukan backtrack (propose and backtrack) atau dilakukan revisi/perbaikan (propose and revise).
46. c. Hierarchical Configuration
47. Pada metode ini, top-level goal dipecah menjadi beberapa alternatif substruktur, masing-masing merepresentasikan perbaikan bagi goal awal. Bentuk dasar hierarchical configuration adalah graph and-or untuk menyimpan skeletal konfigurasi solusi, serta arsitektur fungsional dan design plan untuk mengevaluasi requirement dan constraint. Metode ini cocok untuk kasus struktur konfigurasi yang berhirarki. Contoh: pada pengaturan diet, top-level goal-nya adalah susunan menu dalam beberapa hari. Top-level goal tersebut dipecah menjadi: susunan menu dalam sehari → susunan menu sesuai jadwal makan →susunan menu sesuai jenis menu → menu makanan → makanan. Arsitektur fungsional dan design plan dilakukan ketika menentukan kategori menu makanan dari komponenkomponennya (makanan) dan ketika melakukan pengecekan constraint makanan pengguna saat menyusun menu makanan.
48.
49.
50.
51. LUHUR PIDEKSO ARIF_113040025
52. Sistem Pakar Pengaturan Diet Berdasarkan Golongan Darah
53. Expert System of Blood Type Diet Control
54. IT TELKOM

The Best Problem Solving Method Ever Devised

Clearly & in a practical way explains the steps & techniques of problem solving
for all fields based on the scientific method of problem solving.
Presented in non-technical language
Compiled and Written by Norman W. Edmund
This site revised 2009
Surfers Stop Here - You have hit the jackpot! Here is the greatest idea of all time - the scientific method of problem solving. Don't miss out. Take a few minutes and download this easy to use 2-page file, Your Guide and Worksheet for Applying the Complete Method of Creative Problem Solving and Decision Making (SM-14). Click here

Problem Solving Made Easier - This Site Covers in a 48-page Guide:

  • The 11 Steps or Stagesof the complete method of creative problem solving
  • The 3 supporting ingredients, including problem solving techniques
In addition, it covers:
Problem solving strategies
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Creative problem solving
Problem solving approach
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Problem solving worksheets
Problem solving lesson plans
And much much more
- all free problem solving
It includes a series of Research Reports - Supplementing this Guide: See menu.
  • This site is for open-ended, complex, ill-structured, real life problem solving.
  • If you are interested in math exercises, closed-end, textbook problems, puzzles, game theory, or prefabricated problems, enter "math problem solving" in your search engine. But remember, you should also learn the problem solving method for complex real world problems (sm-14).
Provided here free- The Most Practical and Easy to Understand and Helpful Information on
Problem Solving Available Anywhere for Most Problem Solvers

Certified Reliable Knowledge on Problem Solving

I was the founder and former CEO of Edmund Scientific Co. in Barrington, NJ for 33 years before beginning my second career as an educational researcher. From this first career I gained practical, real world experience in a wide variety of problem solving and decision making.
In my second career as an education researcher, I have specialized and spent full time for 20 years on problem solving and decision making via the scientific method and on the need to include it more adequately in education. The body of knowledge about problem solving is huge and complex. However, I have tried hard to extract the basic principles of the foundation of problem solving. I acknowledge my indebtedness to our academic community and others who helped accumulated this knowledge. I certify without any legal obligation that this site contains reliable knowledge on problem solving. I also certify that the SM-14 model formula for the steps or stages and ingredients of problem solving presented here is the best ever offered.
However, while I like to believe that I am an expert in my area of specialization, there are many features of problem solving that have been made a science or little science. I am not an expert on all of these; I may cover many of them lightly but not in detail. A few examples of these are artificial intelligence, modeling, mathematical problem solving, problem solving games and puzzles, cognitive behavioral psychology, etc.

Free Problem Solving- no copyright claimed on material on this site

To promote the use and teaching of the scientific method of problem solving and decision making and to improve good judgment, I proclaim my writing here to be in the public domain. Please link your site to this one to improve the nation's research problem solving, decision making, and good judgment. This will help prevent unnecessary wars, economic bubbles, and other major decision making errors in business, politics, society, and personal lives. For more information, contact me at nwe@scientificmethod.com.

There Is a Great Need for a Foundation Devoted to Problem Solving and Decision Making

In Decision Making (1982), Nobel Laureate Herbert Simon says:
"Although a number of projects have been and are funded by private foundations, there appears to be at present no foundation for which decision making and problem solving are a major focus of interest."
Here it is 26 years later, and we still don't have a foundation to fill this need. The economic housing bubble of 2008 is just one of the important harmful results of inadequate problem solving. In February 2008, I hit 92 years of age. There is a need for a foundation devoted to decision making and problem solving to continue and expand my efforts. Please spread the word about the need for a foundation.
How much a foundation spends is not usually a measure of how much good it accomplishes. Problem solving and decision making improvement by millions of people could cause a tremendous contribution to making America and the world a better place to live. Therefore, I claim that a foundation devoted to problem solving and decision making endowed with just millions of dollars could equal what a foundation endowed with billions will accomplish. Thus, the biggest bang for the buck.
"Defective problem solving is the cause of all disorders in the world."
Theory Name: Collaborative Problem Solving (CPS)

Authors (Last, First): Nelson, Laurie M.

Associate Learning Theory:
Social learning: collaborative problem-solving

Model Description:
This theory focuses on developing content knowledge in complex domains, problem-solving and critical thinking skills, and collaboration skills. The theory offers a comprehensive set of instructional methods and guidelines for problem-solving and collaborative learning. Specifically, the theory addresses four types of collaborative environments guidelines including instructor-implemented, learner implemented, instructor- and learner-implemented, and interactive methods. Also nine process activities are provided as instructional strategies which apply to particular phases and process during the learning event.

Specification of Theory
(a) Goals and preconditions
Primary goal of the theory is to develop content knowledge in complex domains, problem-solving and critical thinking skills, and collaboration skills.

(b) Principles
1) Maximize the natural collaborative process of learners; 2) Create learning environments which are situated, learner-centered, integrated, and collaborative, versus ones which are decontextualized, isolated and competitive; 3) Develop authentic, relevant learning experience with regard to the content to be learned and the process by which it is learned; 4) Allow students to learn by doing as active participants in their own learning processes; 5) Foster the development of critical thinking and problem-solving skills; 6) Encourage the exploration and analysis of content from multiple perspectives; 7) Acknowledge the importance of rich social contexts for learning; 8) Cultivate supportive, respectful relationships among learners, as well as between learners and the instructor; 9) Develop a desire for life-long learning and the skills to sustain it. (Nelson, 1999, pp. 245-246)

(c) Condition of learning
1) Type of Content: Heuristic tasks made up of a complex system of knowledge and skills & Conceptual understandings and cognitive strategies including critical thinking, learning strategies, and metacognitive skills. 2) Learning Environment encourages an open exchange of ideas and information during collaboration, experimentation, and inquiry based learning with provided well-conceived problem or project scenario. 3) Self-directed learner and Instructor's coaching for group discussion and just-in-time instruction.

(d) Required media
Computer based programs or multimedia to support problem presentation and scaffold cognitive process including knowledge-representation, knowledge-modeling, information- gathering, and problem solving performance

(e) Role of facilitator
Facilitator can be instructor or computer-based tools (e.g., database, multimedia, Internet). Facilitator should take the instructional roles including modeling, coaching, and scaffolding.

(f) Instructional strategies
Process activities throughout the entire learning event as follows:
1) Instructor and learners build their readiness to engage in collaborative group work
2) Either the instructor or the learners form small, heterogeneous work groups, and then the groups engage in norming processes.
3) Group engage in a preliminary process to define the problem they will work on.
4) Each group defines what roles are necessary to accomplish the design plan and then assigns them.
5) The group engages in the primary, iterative CPS process
6) Groups begin to finalize their solutions or projects
7) The instructor and learners engage in activities to help them reflect and synthesize their experiences
8) The instructor and the learners assess their products and processes when appropriate.
9) The instructor and learners develop an activity to bring closure to the learning event.

(g) Assessment method
Evaluation of learners should be taking place during the entire learning experience, taking a variety of forms, both informal and formal (e.g., group conversation, observations of the groups at work, assessment of individual progress reports, and reports from each group’s formative evaluation and usability tests). Evaluation focuses on (1) learning gains (content knowledge and skills, group-process skills, and metacognitive strategies), (2) the solutions or projects developed by each group, and (3) group processes of each team. The final grade should be a combination of assessments of the group project and individual contributions.

Formative Research & Application
(a) Tested context: K-12; Higher Ed. (Bruffee, 1993)
(b) Research method
(c) Research description

(d) Resources
Nelson, L. M. (1999). Collaborative problem solving. In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional design theories and models: A new paradigm of instructional theory (pp. 241-267). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Bruffee, K. A. (1993). Collaborative learning: higher education, interdependence, and the authority of knowledge. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Johnson, D. W. & Johnson, R. T. (1994). Learning together. In S. Sharan (Ed.), Handbook of cooperative learning methods (pp. 51-65). Westport, CT: Greenwood Press
As with creative thinking, flexibility is a crucially important feature in problem solving. Many of these techniques you will begin to use regularly for each major problem you address. Others you will use selectively.

Assumption Articulation

A first and frequently overlooked step in problem solving is to identify the assumptions you are making about the situation. Many of the assumptions will be hidden and unrecognized until a deliberate effort is made to identify them. Often it is the unrecognized assumption that prevents a good solution. However, before we get too critical of assumptions, we should note their value and necessity. So we begin there.

Assumptions are Necessary

Assumptions and constraints are necessary for three reasons:
1. They set limits to the problem and thus provide a framework within which to work. These limits might include constraints of possibility, economics, or some other desired narrowing.
2. Assumptions reflect desired values, values that should be maintained throughout the solution. For example, in punishing criminals, we assume that we are still concerned about their humanity, so that, say, torture with electric prods will not be considered as a possibility for punishment.
3. Assumptions simplify the problem and make it more manageable by providing fewer things to consider and solve. A problem with no assumptions is usually too general to handle.

Assumptions are Often Self-imposed

In spite of the necessity of having assumptions, many assumptions produce self-imposed limits. That is, the impossibilities or fixed constraints in a problem are often not imposed by nature or the laws of physics, but by ourselves through our understanding of the situation or through the desire to focus the problem.
In assumption articulation, then, our goal is to identify the assumptions being made and to determine the following:
1. Is the assumption necessary? If not, can or should it be dispensed with?
2. If the assumption is not necessary, is it appropriate? That is, many rather arbitrary assumptions and constraints are nevertheless desirable.
For example, when we say, "We have only two weeks to solve this problem," those two weeks may be entirely appropriate as an outside time limit for generating and implementing the solution, simply because the problem's importance in relation to the rest of life warrants no more than those two weeks.

Examine the Assumptions Behind your Problem

1. Make a list of assumptions. As you think about your problem, force to the surface every given, taken for granted, assumed fact about the situation you can think of. Many, if not most, assumptions do not really fit into categories like those in the checklist below. Instead, most assumptions are statements about reality that we believe to be true. Many of them are "obvious" and we normally would not think to question them. Yet that is exactly why we so often get blocked when we try to solve a difficult problem.
For example, the design of women's swim suits was long constrained by limited technology. How can we make a new design that will stand up to the rigors of swimming in salty or highly chlorinated water? Only a few fabrics are strong enough and printing or decorations don't hold up well. The completely obvious and absolutely unquestionable assumption being made here is that most women do a lot of swimming in their swim suits. Of course, dummy, why else would they buy them? Some brave soul, who was probably called a fool, decided to question this assumption and do some research. It was discovered that 90% of women's swim suits never get wet (except perhaps in the laundry). This was quite a revelation for suit designers, because it opened up a whole new world of materials and designs that would stand up to sunning but wouldn't take swimming. Who would have thought that anyone would buy a swim suit marked "dry clean only"?
When you have thought of all the miscellaneous assumptions you can, you might find it helpful to use a checklist of assumption areas like this:
A. Time. How quickly or slowly am I assuming it will take? Can the solution be sped up or can more time be found somewhere?
B. Money. Are the limits of money I'm assuming necessary? Can I find more money? Or, more creatively, can I do it for less money or no money? Can I get someone else to pay? Money is a common block to the solution of many problems. We say, If only I had the money, I could do it. Often, however, we can find ways of accomplishing the same thing with less money or with none or with other people's money. Don't let the money psychology block you. Example: We need computers and hard disks but we don't have the money. Possibilities: donated funds, find lower price, get manufacturers or dealers to donate the parts.
C. Cooperation. Am I assuming that certain people will be in favor of the solution, support it, help implement it, when in fact they might not? Or am I assuming that certain people will be against it when they might not be?
D. Physics. Are the laws of physics interfering? The problem is "impossible" of solution? What at first seems physically impossible may on reflection not be so after all. Remember the pear in the bottle, "moving" the Statue of Liberty, or even launching rockets out of the atmosphere.
E. Law. Is the solution blocked by law? Can the law be changed, circumvented (for moral purposes only), or even broken (for the right cause)? Maybe it can be reinterpreted to permit the solution. Example: Bible clubs in high schools. According to one high school's interpretation, the Freedom of Association law permits students to get together to pray but not to advertise their prayer group. Can this regulation be skirted by word of mouth advertising or by holding a prayer meeting right after another non-prayer meeting?
F. Energy. We can devote only so much energy to any given solution. Is the amount assumed to be appropriate or maximum really so? It's better to expend a little more energy to solve a problem well the first time than to have to redo the entire thing after a half-energetic solution.
G. Cost/Benefit. How much is it worth to solve the problem? Costs can include an investment of time, energy, money, emotion, or other resource--mental effort, eyesight, whatever.
H. Information. Is the information available correct? This assumption often proves wrong. Double check the so-called facts surrounding the problem. Note that in most cases, more information can always be obtained. Are we assuming that all available information or all pertinent information is at hand? New information often changes the entire appearance of the problem?
I. Culture Binding. Is the solution being limited because of attitudes in the culture or practices of recent history? How did or do other peoples solve the problem? These ideas that are socialized into us often go unexamined. Why do we balk at eating squid or dogs? Up until about seventy-five years ago, it was common for men to marry women fifteen or twenty years younger than themselves. Now we consider that unusual and some people even consider it wrong, just as we consider older women marrying younger men unusual.
2. Focus your assumption identification on the crux or sticking point of the problem. You may be making an unnecessarily limiting assumption about something right at the point of blockage.
For example, let's say your problem is to clean the mineralization off the water faucets in the bathrooms of your house. You have gone to a hardware store or home center and tried every cleaner in the housewares department but nothing has been satisfactory. You think, "I've used every household cleaner I can find." Examine your assumptions: I'm assuming that household cleaners are found in the housewares department. Is that true or necessary? What about other kinds of cleaner that might be found in the automotive, plumbing, hardware, or garden department? Also, what about products not even described as cleaners but that might clean off the mineralization? The solution you finally come up with is to use an automotive chrome bumper cleaner or perhaps some household vinegar to clean off the mineralization and then to apply some car wax to the chrome to protect it from future build up. Your assumptions about store locations, product names and types and uses have all been challenged and found not necessary.
3. Look over your written statements of the problem and your lists of constraints and write out a list of the assumptions behind each item. In these three steps, you'll have a three-part list:
A. General assumptions. These are the assumptions you make without thinking or realizing that you have made them. Some of them are necessary, but some may not be. Write out even the most obvious ones.
B. Assumptions at the crux. These assumptions are usually made consciously, but are not often examined critically to determine whether they are necessary or not. Again, write them out so that each one may be examined and tested individually.
C. Assumptions determining the constraints. These are the assumptions about cost, time, effort, size, results and so forth that you make in order to establish the boundaries of the solution. Most of them are desirable. Sometimes one or more of them will be made too hastily, though, so that they deserve reexamination as well as the other kinds.

An Example

Let's say you are the manager of a factory that makes portable electric generators. Your product is largely bolted together at final assembly by workers using air wrenches. The wrenches, like those you hear screaming in auto repair shops, make a lot of noise, hurting the workers' hearing and job satisfaction. Your problem is, "How can we reduce the noise made by these air wrenches?"
Note that as with most problem statements, the problem as stated implies certain solutions. If you simply accepted the problem as stated, you would probably think of some possible alternatives like these:
  • put silencers or mufflers on the wrenches
  • build a sound proof room for the wrench assembly
  • install lead curtains around the assembly area to soak up the noise
  • install a sound "canceler"
But instead of this, you decide to do some assumption articulation. Here are some of the assumptions being made:
1. Air wrenches are noisy.
2. We must use air wrenches to put the parts together.
3. People must use the air wrenches.
4. We must use wrenches.
5. The fastening must take place in this area or in this factory.
6. Bolts must be used to hold the pieces together.
7. The employees don't like the noise.

As you think about these assumptions, some new ideas come to you:
1. Air wrenches are noisy. Are all air wrenches equally noisy? Can we buy a quieter brand? Is there a "silent air wrench" being sold?
2. We must use air wrenches to put the parts together. Why not use manual wrenches, or electric wrenches, or hydraulic wrenches?
3. People must use the air wrenches. Why not use robots? Can we use the wrenches less? Rotate employees so that each one uses the wrenches just a little each day.
4. We must use wrenches. Why not use other tools? Nut drivers?
5. The fastening must take place in this area of the factory. Why not move it outside? Subcontract it? Put it in a special soundproof room?
6. Bolts must be used to hold the pieces together. Why not rivets? Spot welding? Adhesive? Screws? Clamps? Mold some of the pieces together so they need not be bolted or fastened at all?
7. The employees don't like the noise. Get employees who like noise? Who don't hear it (like deaf people)? Give them ear muffs? Play loud music to mask the noise?

Note that ideas like robots, deaf employees, adhesive bonding and so on would not be suggested by the original form of the problem statement, which is based on several perhaps unnecessary assumptions. A little assumption articulation breaks our thinking out of these restraints and allows us to see some new possibilities.

Techniques for Approaching a Problem

Here are several ways to attack a problem, each way designed to clarify the problem, suggest alternatives, or break a fixation. You will want to experiment with the applicability of these for various situations.

Entry Points

An entry point is, as Edward de Bono has said, "the part of a problem or situation that is first attended to." In our linear, traditional problem solving mindset, this usually means a particular point--usually the most obvious--on the front end of the problem. However, there is no reason that some other point cannot be chosen as an entry point, nor is there any reason that the problem cannot be approached from the middle or even the end. Let's look at each of these.
1. Front end entry points. Most problems are attacked on the front end first, which is to say, by stating the problem. However, there is really more than one front end because a give problem can be attacked from any one of several angles. Too often we assume that the first front-end angle that comes to mind is the method of approach, the only way to attack the problem. But that is not so.
Example problem: How to keep rain off of you while you walk on the street.
Possible entry points:
1. Inadequacies of current umbrellas. (Suggests "improve the umbrella" as a problem direction.)
2. Irritation of having to carry an umbrella. (Suggests "develop easily portable umbrella.)
3. Let the government do it. (Suggests public works items like awnings, free taxis, underground corridors.)
4. Let the individual do it. (Why not just get wet? Why does getting wet matter? What are the problems? Do they really need to be solved?)
5. Walking. (Why walk? Why not ride? Conveyances?)
6. Street. (Why go out on the street in the first place? Why not stay at home? Keep out of the rain? Solve the problem that made you go onto the street in the first place. E. g. to get a video, why not TV or cable movie or read a book or make popcorn and talk about rainy days?)

Notice here that what seems to be just one problem actually has several possible entry points, and depending on the point chosen, entirely different solutions will result. Edward de Bono comments about the importance of choosing an entry point:
Usually the obvious entry point is chosen. . . . There is no way of telling which entry point is going to be best so one is usually content with the most obvious one. It is assumed that the choice of entry point does not matter since one will always arrive at the same conclusions. This is not so since the whole train of thought may be determined by the choice of entry point.
Example problem: ATC's cause many injuries and deaths each year.
Possible entry points:
1. They tip over easily. (redesign them?)
2. They are not toys. (license users? require age minimums?)
3. Riders don't know how to use them safely. (educate riders?)
4. Many head and spinal injuries result. (roll bars? seat belts?)
Problem: How to have secret conversations in the bugged embassy in Moscow. Possible entry points:
1. conversations can be heard (notes, sign language, special room)
2. diplomats must share information (disinformation?)
3. the whole building is bugged (leave building? erect internal room?)

2. Beginning at the end. When a particular solution state is clearly defined, a problem can often be more easily solved by starting with the solution and working backwards toward the problem, filling in the necessary steps along the way.
The classic example is the problem: Divide a triangle into three parts so that the parts can be put together to form a square. That's very hard. But if you start from the solution end, with a square, it's easy to divide it into three parts all of which form a triangle.
Example: How do you count the number of people in a stadium that's over ninety percent full? Count the number of empty seats and subtract from the number of seats in the stadium. Easier than counting people.
Example: How do you improve your relationship with your parents when you're not quite sure what's wrong with it--what the problem is? Start at the end, with the solution. Envision how you want the relationship to be and work backwards toward a discovery of the problem.
Whenever the solution or goal state is clearer than the problem, then changing the entry point to the end may be the best approach. Start with the goal or solution and look for ways to work back to the problem.
3. Somewhere between the beginning and the end. After all, there's no law that says you have to start at one end or the other. So why not start in the middle?
Ancient Greek epics typically start in medias res, in the middle of things, and later go on to fill out preceding and succeeding action. You can do this in problem solving. It's, again, sort of the "ready, fire, aim" approach.
For example, say you want to put up a new building. Why not assume that the funding and planning have already been done and begin with the construction phase, which contractors to hire, etc. Then work in both directions--backward toward planning where to put the building and how to get the money, and forward toward arranging for tenants.
Note that you can really begin at any point on this alleged continuum, with location, tenants, architect, and work in both directions:
building type---architect---location---contractors---tenants

Movies are put together this way all the time. The "obvious" order is
idea---script---producer---actors---studio---filming

but many movies get actors first, then a producer, then a script, etc.
Beginning in the middle has some risks, but it's especially good for getting things done quickly and for beginning to do something even when you're not quite sure of either the problem or the solution. It's the kind of thing that will sometimes get you labeled as rash and hasty and sometimes as brilliant and visionary.

Rival Hypotheses

A hypothesis is a proposed explanation for a collection of data. A rival hypothesis is an alternative explanation for the same sets of data, another way of explaining the same results or events. Often the hypothesis is a statement about causation: the data indicate that X caused Y or that B occurs when A is present. It is critically important to remember, however, that in the realm of hypothesis and explanation, the data do not speak for themselves; they must be interpreted. The act of interpretation involves many difficulties, including those of experimenter bias, the confusion between correlation and cause, and non-random sampling.

Dangers of Having only One Hypothesis

The danger of limiting ourselves to one hypothesis to explain a collection of phenomena is twofold.
1. Some evidence will be ignored. If we are focused on a single hypothesis, we will overlook as not relevant any information that does not bear on the truth or falsity of the hypothesis. However, such information might bear on the truth or falsity of some other hypothesis.
For example, if our hypothesis is that suspect X burglarized the Turner's house, we will focus on evidence that helps to establish or disprove our theory. As a result, we will probably overlook the fact that the story told by the Turner's son does not add up. That's just an ignorable anomaly. If, on the other hand, one of our hypotheses is that the Turner's son might have faked a burglary and stolen the missing items himself, then the difficulties in his story will not be overlooked.
2. We may become emotionally committed to our hypothesis. The idea of falling in love with a pet theory is not limited to problem solving, of course. Wherever it happens, the lover begins to search for and select out only the evidence that supports the hypothesis, ignoring or subconsciously filtering out information that argues against the pet.
For our example, here's a story: An experimenter carefully conditioned a flea to jump out of a box when a bell was rung. Then he pulled off the first pair of the flea's legs. The flea still jumped out of the box. So he pulled off the second pair of legs. The flea could still jump out. Finally, he pulled off the last pair of legs. This time, when the bell was rung, the flea didn't jump our of the box. The experimenter concluded that his theory was correct: "When all the legs of a flea have been removed, it will no longer be able to hear."
To avoid these two problems, then, we should attempt to generate as many rival hypotheses as possible for each set of data, and then test each of them against the known facts.

Rules for Generating and Testing Hypotheses

1. The hypothesis should account for all possibly relevant data. An explanation that covers only part of the data or that is in conflict with a major fact, is not a good explanation. Remember, though, that especially early on, all explanations will have problems and will fact some seemingly conflicting data. Facts are refined and clarified as better information becomes available. So don't throw out all but "perfect" explanations; you won't have any.
2. Simpler explanations are usually to be preferred over more complex explanations. This is the principle of Occam's razor, discussed inHuman-Factor Phenomena in Problem Solving.
3. More probable explanations are usually to be preferred over less probable ones. Many things are possible; fewer things are probable. It is possible that ancient astronauts built the pyramids, but it is more probable that the Egyptians did.
4. The consequences following from the truth of the hypothesis must match the facts. If, for example, you hypothesize that a bomb destroyed an airplane and caused it to crash, you will expect to find bomb residue as a consequence of this hypothesis.
When you first read how facts match a theory, you might be tempted to think, "Why, yes, that must be it." However, when you make the effort to research (or even take a few moments to generate on your own) a few rival hypotheses--alternative explanations--the original hypothesis becomes suddenly less persuasive. As with many other things in life, When you have a choice of only one, it seems to be the right choice; but when you have a choice of many, your taste improves. There is even a Biblical passage relevant to this issue: "The first to present his case seems right, till another comes forward and examines him" (Proverbs 18:17).
When you begin to examine a proposed explanation for some data, ask yourself, "What other variables are involved that might also account for the result?
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Try It Yourself

Rival Hypotheses. What rival hypotheses can you think of for each of these explanations?
1. Speed Kills? In 1973, when the national speed limit was 65 miles per hour, there were 55,000 automobile-related deaths. In 1974, when the speed limit was reduced to 55 mph, deaths declined 20 percent. In 1975, they declined 2 percent more. However, in 1976, as motorists began to ignore the speed limit and drive at 65 once again, deaths increased. The conclusion is clear: lower speed limits save lives.
2. Wedded Bliss? Many studies over long periods have established that married people are generally healthier than single (never married, widowed, divorced) people. Lung cancer, stroke, and coronary heart disease are all lower in married people. Married men live longer than men who do not marry. One researcher attributes these facts to the harmful consequences of loneliness. Are there any other possible explanations for these differences?
3. Coffee Coffin? A recent study has found that men who drink more than six cups of coffee per day have a much higher heart attack rate than those who drink fewer than six cups a day. Clearly, drinking coffee causes heart attacks. Or is there a rival hypothesis?
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Role Playing

Role playing consists of several techniques, having in common the use of the mind to imagine a different reality, to change what you have to what you want.


1. Mental Practice.
Before attempting a solution or doing something--taking a test, driving to a new area, writing a paper, asking for a raise--practice the situation mentally.

For example, Abraham Lincoln imagined what he would do and say as president before he was ever elected. Dr. Charles Mayo of Mayo Clinic fame always mentally practiced his surgical operations before doing them--he would find a quiet spot and then go through the whole procedure in his mind: cutting, asking for instruments, examining, suturing. Many athletes rehearse their upcoming performances mentally to gain confidence and familiarity with the moment of performance.


Visualize the problem and your solution to it and you'll be able to solve it or do it better. One woman imagined driving on the left side of the road, turning, passing, merging, etc. before taking a trip to England. When she finally got to England, she found that she could drive easily--it was already a familiar experience.


2. Becoming another person.
The second form of role playing is to imagine that you are someone else--involved in either the solution or the problem.

A. Problem Person.
Imagine that you are the litterbug, the reckless, drinking driver, or the short tempered, hard to live with friend. What makes you this way? What might improve you? What are the nuances of your personality?

B. The Solver.
Imagine that you are an expert who can solve the problem with your special knowledge. What do you know and what do you do? Solutions take direction from past experience. They derive from what is already done or known. We go with the familiar and use what we have learned--or what we imagine we have learned or experienced.

For example, suppose you must build a canal. Imagine first that you are not a canal builder but a pipeline maker. How would he build the canal? (Perhaps by using reinforced half pipeline sections?) Now imagine that you are a tunnel maker. Now how would you solve the problem? (Perhaps by using an inverted tunnel?) Now imagine that you are a swimming pool builder. How would you solve it? (Perhaps by using steel rebar and spray-on gunite?)


3. Mental metamorphosis.
In this kind of role playing, you change yourself into the problem thing--become a bearing, a helicopter, an electric current, a germ. Michael Faraday imagined that he was an atom under pressure and thereby developed his electromagnetic theory.

For example, suppose you want to find a solution for rusty and leaking gasoline tanks. Imagine all the attributes of the situation: the metal tank, its color, temperature, touch, the leak in it, the sound of the dribble of gasoline as is plops to the sandy soil under the tank. What does it feel like to be a tank in the sun, to feel your side leaking, to smell the wet sand/gasoline combination under you? What do you taste like? When the service man puts the wrench on your valve, how does it feel? Do your insides itch as they rust? What would help that? A coating? Does the gasoline running down your side bother you? What would soak that up or seal it off?

Modeling

A model is a representation or pattern of an idea or problem. That is, a model is a way to describe or present a problem in a way that aids in understanding or solving the problem. Models serve several purposes:

The Purpose of Modeling

1. To make an idea concrete.
This is done by representing it pictorially or symbolically. We are very visually oriented creatures, and it is easy to bring about understanding or conceptualization through an image--much the way analogy works, only now you use a picture, drawing, map, boxes, circles. A drawing can show a relationship, connection, arrangement, hierarchy, and so forth much more quickly than words alone can.

Another use of representative modeling is to enhance creativity by converting an idea into something that can be experienced by the senses. "Okay, this salt shaker is our blocked plan, and these French fries are the people opposing the plan by holding up the rules--this napkin--in front of it. Well, what can we do? Lift the salt shaker, move it around, over, through, empty it."


Many a problem solver has drawn on a napkin, arranged the food on his plate, scratched a stick in the sand, sketched a form of some sort, or even played with some children's blocks.


2. To reveal possible relationships between ideas.
Relationships of hierarchy, support, dependence, cause, effect, etc. can be revealed by constructing a visual model.

For example, what is the relationship between faith and reason? This can be shown by one block on top of another (a hierarchy), one circle inside another (one concept as part of the other), two blocks side by side, one each on a balance, and so on. Each model suggests a different relationship, each easy to remember.


A fact that needs special emphasis is that the model one uses for understanding will have a profound effect on perception and conceptualization. In fact, to a large extent, a model will determine your perception of an idea or problem and control your thinking about possibilities, relationships between parts, and so on. That's why multiple models are often highly desirable: they allow a person to think of the same concept in several different ways without the unconscious controlling influence that a single model might have.


Another example: The saying, "Ready, fire, aim" seems funny and illogical to most people because they automatically assume a rifle or pistol or arrow model, and with such a model, the saying doesn't make sense. These people are trapped by their own thought processes and automatic modeling. However, if we construct a different model--that of a machine gun, fire hose, laser beam, flame thrower, heat gun, fire extinguisher, blowtorch, hammer drill or whatever, then the saying makes great sense after all.


We have to be careful, then, how much we let our models control our thinking.


3. To simplify the complex to make it manageable or understandable.
Almost all models are simplifications because reality is so complex. The whole economy, weather system, human personality, geological structure of the earth, air flow over airplane wings--all are too complex to be treated as is, so models are constructed that present simplifications that can be treated. Simplification is both benefit and danger, and when dealing with a model, one must always be sure not to forget that the model and reality might not match perfectly--and sometimes not well at all.

4. The main purpose of modeling, which often includes all of the above three purposes, is to present a problem in a way that allows us to understand it and solve it.
That is, by seeing the problem in a different form or from a different angle, we can gain the insight necessary to find a solution. We take a problem and simplify it, make it visual, and provide a familiar pattern.

Types of Models

1. Categories.
Models can be put into one of two categories, conceptual and structural. Of the types listed below, many of them can fall into either category depending on the use made of them.

A. Conceptual.
Models used for concretizing or reifying an idea, used to aid conception or understanding. These can be ultimately symbolic or arbitrary, whatever is necessary or useful. Also models to aid memory or teaching and relationship models.

B. Structural.
Physical models of physical structures--oil refineries, DNA helixes, buildings, architectural model, a new kind of record player or bicycle. A model is almost always constructed before a prototype is made for a product and models are usually made for all large construction projects.

2. Types.
These are not fixed and exclusive boxes--they often overlap, as in visual symbolic.

A. Visual.
Draw a picture of it. If the problem is or contains something physical, draw a picture of the real thing--the door, road, machine, bathroom, etc. If the problem is not physical, draw a symbolic picture of it, either with lines and boxes or by representing aspects of the problem as different items--like cars and roads representing information transfer in a company.

Visual models are among the most effective because we are highly visually oriented beings. Remember Confucius' saying that is now a cliche but a true statement nonetheless: A picture is worth a thousand words.


B. Physical.
The physical model takes the advantages of a visual model one step further by producing a three dimensional visual model. Again, you can use a real model or a symbolic one.

C. Mathematical.
Many problems are best solved mathematically, by using calculations for speed, area, projected income, national unemployment. Thinking beyond three dimensions visually or four dimensions physically is very difficult. But with math, ten or fifteen dimensions are no problem. Ideas of speed, acceleration, and accelerating acceleration are often more understandable mathematically.

Example problem: Whom to hire. A mathematical model, such as a decision matrix, enables the thinker to quantify subjectivity and to be sure that all considerations (or criteria) are taken into account to the degree desired. The expected value calculation is another mathematical method of making a choice based on probable effects and preferred outcomes.


D. Metaphorical or Symbolic or Analogical.
Remember what we said about metaphor and analogy, that the unfamiliar becomes understandable by comparing it to the familiar. That's how this kind of modeling works. Both understanding and structure can be established for a problem by using a metaphor or symbol. Here are some examples useful kinds:

General Paradigms

1. System model.
A system is a collection of interrelated elements working together to accomplish a common goal. The parts are input, processing, [storage], output, feedback, and control. Example systems are house heating system with thermostat, circulatory system.

Example problem: Interpersonal relationship improvement.

input: words, actions
processing: reactions
output: happiness, mutual support or discontent
feedback: communication (words actions)
control: change of processing (reactions and actions and output)


2. Design model.
Design is planning with a concern for pattern and overall harmony. Component parts are identified and worked together into a whole. The key to design consideration is to plan so that the result to be an effective presentation. (For more details on design, see Chapter 7.)

Example problem: Vacation. Design a vacation

Sketch out parts--what should be included in a vacation? How will one part affect other parts? How does travel method affect sightseeing? Boat, rail, plane, care, walk, bike ride, etc.


3. Construction model.
This model emphasizes sequential building. Part by part.

Example problem: Term paper. How can I build this paper? Foundation? Walls? Roof? or Beginning, ending, drawings, outline, other parts? Order of information?


4. Recipe model.
This model emphasizes ingredients and proportions, with perhaps some consideration given to minor items that add "spice" or "flavor" to a project. The Japanese seem to use the recipe model in making many of their consumer products, from stereos to cars. Many cars include a toolkit, first aid kit, sometimes a trouble light--things that American manufacturers sometimes think of negatively as gimmicks or gadgets. The recipe model could be a list or formula for success. Great in advertising, products with features, certain kinds of fiction, etc.

Specific Metaphors:

1. Garden model.
How is problem or solution like a garden? Vegetative, growing, expansive, fruitful, weedy, nurturant, bug infested, etc.

2. Machine model.
How is problem like a machine? Parts working together, parts worn or broken, energy input or driving force, work output?

3. Symphony model.
How like a symphony? Conductor? Harmony? Soloists? Percussion? What is the music they are playing? What orchestrates the interaction of the parts?

4. Human body model.
How like a body? What makes it move? What is life energy? What are hands, feet, mouth, eyes, ears?

5. Vehicle model.
Ship, plane, boat, car, train, blimp, bike, skateboard. What powers it? Who are passengers? Where going? What are its wheels?

Other metaphors useful for modeling are sculpting, movie making, an island, the ocean, a computer.

Using Criticism and Suggestion

Making use of the observations of critics to improve a plan or idea is a fairly obvious technique, but one that is not often used simply because most people don't like criticism. Our ideas are our precious children and to be told that they are ugly or defective is painful and offensive.


However, it is possible to work around the ego sensitivity we have by renaming our criticism seeking into "suggestion seeking" and by viewing the procedure as a formal technique for exploiting the minds, experiences, and ideas of other people. What better way to get other viewpoints than to ask real, other people?

Basic Guidelines

Remember that in problem exploration it was suggested to talk over a problem with others to get insight into it. Well, now we come to the preliminary solution idea and do the same thing. Here are some suggestions:


1. Choose in advance a fixed number of people
you will talk to, to reduce fear and make the process more formulaic (which will make it less ego damaging). Four to six is usually a good number.

2. Frame your request for criticism in a positive way
, so that the criticizer will have to suggest improvements rather than just point out defects.

For example:

A. I have an idea to sell concentrated or dehydrated apple juice. Can you think of some ways to improve it?
B. I'm asking several of my most thoughtful friends how I can improve this idea for making concentrated fruit drinks. Can you think of anything?
C. I'm working on the problem of reducing shipping costs for drinks by concentrating or dehydrating them. I wonder if you could help me find a solution? Here's what I've come up with so far. (This puts the other person in a solution mindset rather than a criticism mindset.)


3. Ask all kinds of people
, not just people knowledgeable in the area. Ask children, even. Remember the value of mind stimulation, where an idea may not be directly useful but may suggest something else.

4. When you get more confidence, you can ask for an analysis of defects or inadequacies.


For Example:

A. What am I missing? What am I not thinking of? What am I not taking into account?
B. What don't you like about this? What's wrong with it? How would you have done it differently?


5. Use the dual method of asking for suggestions.
There are two ways to operate the idea and suggestion technique.

A. Ask each person to improve the original plan or suggestion.
Go to several people and propose the same plan and ask for input about it. This way you will get several different responses to the original.

B. After each suggestion, alter the idea to incorporate the suggestions and criticisms, and then present the new idea to the next person for suggestion and criticism.
That way, the idea builds and improves with each criticism. The drawback is that certain other fundamental suggestions may be eliminated because the subsequent suggesters don't see the original idea.

It is important for you as a creative thinker to see yourself as independent and separate from your ideas. Don't get your ego so involved in an idea that you will be unwilling to alter it if you discover or are told about needed changes. And don' be unwilling to abandon it if you discover a better idea. Keep a whole sackful of possibilities that can be rotated or combined to form the best solution, and put your pride in solving the problem, the result, not in the particular solution path you are currently thinking of.

Searching Techniques

Heuristic Methods

A heuristic is a guide, a rule of thumb, a learn as you go strategy, typified by trial and error. It involves choice, hunch, knowledge, and a lot of creativity. It's the way most education works. However, no heuristic can guarantee a solution. A heuristic simply increases the probability of finding a solution. An example heuristic method follows.


1. Trial and error.
The trial and error search involves the non use of directional information. That is, the search proceeds without any sense of choice or likelihood of one path over another. Trial and error can be made much more efficient if it is systematic rather than blind, that is, when a record of attempts and failures is kept so that the same path or solution is not tried more than once. So take good notes.

Algorithmic Methods

There is another kind of technique called an algorithm that can guarantee a solution. An algorithm is a list of set procedures, a recipe, a formula, or set of exact directions--computer programs and math formulas for finding volumes and areas are algorithms. There are a couple of common search algorithms:


1. The maze algorithm.
This algorithm guarantees that you will be able to solve or walk through a maze. All you have to do is follow the same wall all the way through. In practical terms this means put your hand on the wall and keep it there as you walk through. Either hand and either wall.

2. The split-half method.
This powerful technique is used for finding a problem or phenomenon along any linear system. It is used by electricians, plumbers, mechanics, electronics technicians and others to find trouble in equipment. (e.g. faulty doorbell, leak in pipe). The method involves going immediately to the halfway point in the linear system and checking to see if the problem or a symptom of the problem appears there. If it does, the problem is in the first half of the system. If it doesn't, the problem appears in the second half. Next, the investigator goes to the half of the system where the problem is now know to occur and checks at its halfway point to see if the problem or symptom appears there. The answer eliminates another quarter of the system. Note that in just two steps, two checks, three quarters of the system has been eliminated from possibility. The halving continues until the problem is located. This is much faster than random checking or than by starting at one end of the linear system and proceeding toward the other end.

Example uses:

  • Someone is stealing oil from our transdesert pipeline; where?
  • Our packages are arriving from Germany all beat up; where are they being damaged?
  • Somewhere along the manufacturing line our product is getting dented on the corner; where is this occurring?
  • Somewhere between here and Sacramento the river is being polluted; where is this happening?
  • Somewhere in our spy network information is leaking to the Soviets; who is doing it?
  • Somewhere in the process of transmitting data from the factory floor to the main office, information is being lost or garbled. Where is this happening?
Note that many systems are or can be perceived as linear, whether the thing moving through them is water, paint, food, information, television sets, smog, whatever.

Other Techniques

Here are some general techniques for help in solving problems.


1. Public Solution.
Post the problem on a bulletin board or circulate it in a newsletter, memo, or whatever written medium is in use in your organization or group. Make a note that suggestions and solutions are solicited and that ideas should be sent to you.

This technique causes public discussion of the problem at an intellectual rather than personal level. If your problem is employee absenteeism, poor quality parts, financial difficulty, or something similar, the public discussion will tend to focus on solutions rather than on blame attribution. If the problem does not derive from people difficulty, as in how to pack light bulbs more safely or how to hold books upright on partially filled library shelves, posting the problem can hook solutions that may have been applied to a similar problem elsewhere. And of course, the basic strategy behind posting a problem is that it gets several minds working on the problem, both independently and in discussion with others. People in the organization will talk about the problem in their idle moments.


During group problem solving discussions, posting a problem on the board is useful because it (1) stimulates interest and discussion in the problem, (2) makes people willing to take responsibility for the problems of others, and (3) develops problem solving attitudes in all members of the group.


Problem Solving Hints and Wisdom

1.
Take time to examine and explore the problem thoroughly before setting out in search of a solution. Often, to understand the problem is to solve it.
2. Breaking the problem into smaller parts will often make solving it much easier. Solve each part separately.
3. The resources for problem solving are immense and ubiquitous.
4. You can always do something.
5. A problem is not a punishment; it is an opportunity to increase the happiness of the world, an opportunity to show how powerful you really are.
6. The formulation of a problem determines the range of choices: the questions you ask determine the answers you receive.
7. Be careful not to look for a solution until you understand the problem, and be careful not to select a solution until you have a whole range of choices.
8. The initial statement of a problem often reflects a preconceived solution.
9. A wide range of choices (ideas, possible solutions) allows you to choose the best from among many. A choice of one is not a choice.
10. People work to implement their own ideas and solutions much more energetically than they work to implement others' ideas and solutions.
11. Remember the critical importance of acceptance in solving problems. A solution that is technologically brilliant but sociologically stupid is not a good solution.
12. When the goal state is clear but the present state is ambiguous, try working backwards.
13. Procrastinators finish last.
14. Denying a problem perpetuates it.
15. Solve the problem that really exists, not just the symptoms of a problem, not the problem you already have a solution for, not the problem you wish existed, and not the problem someone else thinks exists.
16. A maker follows a plan; a creator produces a plan.
17. Creativity is the construction of somethings new out of somethings old, through effort and imagination.

problem-solving and decision-making

simple processes for problem-solving and decision-making

Problem solving and decision-making are important skills for business and life. Problem-solving often involves decision-making, and decision-making is especially important for management and leadership. There are processes and techniques to improve decision-making and the quality of decisions. Decision-making is more natural to certain personalities, so these people should focus more on improving the quality of their decisions. People that are less natural decision-makers are often able to make quality assessments, but then need to be more decisive in acting upon the assessments made. Problem-solving and decision-making are closely linked, and each requires creativity in identifying and developing options, for which the brainstorming technique is particularly useful. See also the free SWOT analysis template and examples, and PEST analysis template, which help decision-making and problem-solving. SWOT analysis helps assess the strength of a company, a business proposition or idea; PEST analysis helps to assess the potential and suitability of a market. Good decision-making requires a mixture of skills: creative development and identification of options, clarity of judgement, firmness of decision, and effective implementation. For group problem-solving and decision-making, or when a consensus is required, workshops help, within which you can incorporate these tools and process as appropriate. Here are some useful methods for effective decision-making and problem-solving: First a simple step-by-step process for effective decision-making and problem-solving.
See also the decision-making facilitative questions template.
And definitely see the ethical decision-making quick guide.

decision-making process

  1. Define and clarify the issue - does it warrant action? If so, now? Is the matter urgent, important or both. See the Pareto Principle.
  2. Gather all the facts and understand their causes.
  3. Think about or brainstorm possible options and solutions. (See brainstorming process)
  4. Consider and compare the pros and cons of each option - consult if necessary - it probably will be.
  5. Select the best option - avoid vagueness or 'foot in both camps' compromise.
  6. Explain your decision to those involved and affected, and follow up to ensure proper and effective implementation.
Decision-making maxims will help to reinforce the above decision-making process whether related to problem-solving or not, for example:
"We know what happens to people who stay in the middle of the road. They get run down." (Aneurin Bevan)
"In any moment of decision the best thing you can do is the right thing, the next best thing is the wrong thing, and the worst thing you can do is nothing." (attributed to Theodore Roosevelt - more maxims on the quotes page)
JFDI - Just Frigging Do it (polite version). The decision-maker's motto. There are usually several right answers when you are faced with a complex decision. When you've found the best solution you can find, get on with it, make it work, and it most probably will. (More useful rules, acronyms and training ideas on the acronyms page)

pros and cons decision-making method

Another simple process for decision-making is the pros and cons list.
Pro means 'for', and con means 'against'. In other words, advantages and disadvantages.
This method also applies to all sorts of problem-solving where issues and implications need to be understood and a decision has to be made.
Some decisions are a simple matter of whether to make a change or not, such as moving, taking a new job, or buying something, selling something, replacing something, etc. Other decisions involve number of options, and are concerned more with how to do something, involving a number of choices. Use the brainstorming process to identify and develop options for decision-making and problem-solving.
  1. First you will need a separate sheet for each identified option.
  2. On each sheet write clearly the option concerned, and then beneath it the headings 'pros' and 'cons' (or 'advantages' and disadvantages', or simply 'for' and 'against'). Many decisions simply involve the choice of whether to go ahead or not, to change or not; in these cases you need only one sheet.
  3. Then write down as many effects and implications of the particular option that you (and others if appropriate) can think of, placing each in the relevant column.
  4. If helpful 'weight' each factor, by giving it a score out of three or five points (e.g., 5 being extremely significant, and 1 being of minor significance).
  5. When you have listed all the points you can think of for the option concerned compare the number or total score of the items/effects/factors between the two columns.
  6. This will provide a reflection and indication as to the overall attractiveness and benefit of the option concerned. If you have scored each item you will actually be able to arrive at a total score, being the difference between the pros and cons column totals. The bigger the difference between the total pros and total cons then the more attractive the option is.
  7. If you have a number of options and have complete a pros and cons sheet for each option, compare the attractiveness - points difference between pros and cons - for each option. The biggest positive difference between pros and cons is the most attractive option.
  8. N.B. If you don't like the answer that the decision-making sheet(s) reflect back to you, it means you haven't included all the cons - especially the emotional ones, or you haven't scored the factors consistently, so re-visit the sheet(s) concerned.
You will find that writing things down in this way will help you to see things more clearly, become more objective and detached, which will help you to make clearer decisions.

pros and cons weighted decision-making template - example

This example weighs the pros and cons of buying a new car to replace an old car.
The weighted pros and cons are purely examples - they are not in any way suggestions of how you should make such a decision. Our decision-making criteria depend on our own personal situations and preferences. And your criteria and weighting will change according to time, situation, and probably your mood too.
Use whatever scoring method you want to. The example shows low scores but you can score each item up to 10, or 20 or 100 - whatever makes sense to you personally. Or you can use an 'A/B/C' or three-star scoring method, whatever works for you.

Should I replace my old car with a new one?

pros (for - advantages)
score
cons (against - disadvantages)
score
better comfort
3
cost outlay will mean making sacrifices
5
lower fuel costs
3
higher insurance
3
lower servicing costs
4
time and hassle to choose and buy it
2
better for family use
3
disposal or sale of old car
2
better reliability
5
big decisions like this scare and upset me
4
it'll be a load off my mind
2
total 6 pros
20
total 5 cons
16

In the above example, on the basis of the pros and cons and the weighting applied, there seems to be a a clear overall (and quantifiable) advantage in the decision to go ahead and buy a new car.
Notice that with this decision-making method it's even possible to include 'intangible' emotional issues in the pros and cons comparison, for example 'it'll be a load off my mind', and 'decisions scare and upset me'.
A decision-making pros and cons list like this helps remove the emotion which blocks clear thinking and decision-making. It enables objectivity and measurement, rather than reacting from instinct, or avoiding the issue altogether. Objective measurement helps in making a confident decision.
The total weighted scores are the main deciding factor rather than the total number of pros and cons, although there is not a scientific 'right' or 'wrong' way to consider the total number of pros and cons compared with the total weighted scores.
If the weighted scores are indicating a decision which makes you feel uncomfortable, then check your weightings, and also check that you've not missed out any factors on either side of the table.
If the decision makes you feel uncomfortable and this is not reflected in the table, then add it as a factor and give it a score.
Seeking feedback or input from a trusted neutral friend can be helpful in confirming your factors and their scores.

blank pros and cons decision-making template

You should be able to cut and paste this template into a text editor or spreadsheet. Add more rows as required.

question/decision/option:

pros (for - advantages)
score
cons (against - disadvantages)
score
totals
totals

complex problems and decisions

For more complex decisions and problems involving more than two possible options you can use several pros and cons tables in conjunction, to compare the overall weight of each option.
In such cases the wording of the options is important, for example, if considering the best path for one's own career and work development the options might be:
  • be employed, working for a big company
  • be self-employed, working as a consultant or freelancer from home
  • start a business, with premises and staff
A situation like this can be approached by completing three separate pros and cons tables and then comparing the net effects (difference between weighted pros and cons) of each one.
While this won't necessarily evaluate and compare all possible inter-related aspects of the whole situation, it will help to give great clarity and detached objectivity (detached as in unemotional), which can be very difficult to find when confronted with a complicated and big challenge offering several options.
Also consider that some decisions and challenges are difficult because you don't have the necessary knowledge or experience, in which case you need first to decide if the decision or challenge is actually appropriate and necessary for you at this stage.
Some decisions have to be made whether you are ready or not. Others might not be as pressing as you imagine.
Do not be forced into a change-based decision if having considered the implications carefully you decide that it's not the best thing to do.
The decision to do nothing different, in the right way for the right reasons, is often a perfectly good option.
Whatever you do - try to be as objective as you can be.
Well prepared decisions are easier to make and to implement, and generally produce the best results.

PROBLEM SOLVING ala KI HADJAR DEWANTARA



Magazine - Pikiran Ki Hadjar
Ditulis oleh Ki Priyo Dwiarso
Sabtu, 19 April 2008

(Dimuat pada Harian Kedaulatan Rakyat, Tanggal 3 April 2008)

Hidup manusia sangat erat dengan stres dan selalu seiring seperjalanan dengan konflik, kontradiksi, perselisihan, dilema, kekecewaan dan sebagainya.
Orang yang pesimis dalam menghadapi kemelut hidup sering bersikap “nelongso” (renjana), menyesali nasib, dendam, bahkan mempertanyakan (protes?) kepada Tuhannya tanpa berdoa/zikir/wirid. Sikap demikian ini tentu bukan jalan keluar yang memberi harapan. Sikap orang yang optimis dalam menghadapi permasalahan akan bertanya “ bagaimana cara penyelesaiannya” yaitu berupaya mencari solusi menuju penyelesaian sesuai yang diharapkan. Tuhan selalu memberi cobaan, namun Tuhan juga memberi batasan bahwa cobaan itu masih mampu diatasi umatnya asalkan mau ikhtiar dengan maksimal.
Dalam mencari solusi (problem solving) masing-masing individu atau golongan masyarakat mempunyai perbedaan yang spesifik. Ada yang dengan tenang-tenang namun tercapai penyelesaian masalah dengan baik. Ada yang menyelesaikan masalah secara fisik atau secara terbuka supaya didengar banyak orang bahkan mengerahkan masa agar bisa dipublikasikan. Ada yang langsung melalui jalur legal dengan pengacara, dengan yang berwajib/polisi. Ada yang mengatasnamakan HAK Azasi Manusia, tetapi mereka lupa bahwa yang harus diutamakan adalah KEWAJIBAN Azasi Manusia. Hak dan kewajiban ini harus dikelola serasi, selaras dan seimbang dalam masyarakat (PB ps 7 ayat 4).
Ki Hadjar Dewantara mendirikan Tamansiswa dengan tujuan tercapainya masyarakat tertib dan damai (orde en vrede) serta keluarga salam dan bahagia. Ketertiban atas nama kadaver disiplin ala diktator tentu tidak menimbulkan kedamaian, demikian pula kedamaian tanpa ketertiban tentu akan membahayakan perdamaian itu sendiri. Guna mencapai tujuan itu Ki Hadjar Dewantara memberikan problem solving yaitu NENG-NING-NUNG-NANG, dengan tujuan mengatasi permasalahan secara kondusif sesuai warisan budaya leluhur.
Dalam menghadapi tekanan penjajah Belanda saat itu Ki Hadjar Dewantara sering ditekan dengan interogasi, masuk penjara, dibuang ke seberang laut ke Nederland, ke Merauke, beliau selalu “legowo” namun tetap kuat berpegang pada prinsip perjuangan. Perlawanan terhadap politik penjajah sering dilakukan Ki Hadjar Dewantara dengan menggunakan kepiawaiannya sebagai seorang jurnalis yaitu dengan tulisan yang tepat mengenai sasaran, misalnya saat menghadapi ordonansi sekolah liar (Onderwijs Ordonantie) dan peringatan HUT Ratu Belanda. Inilah realisasi dari konsep problem solving ala Tamansiswa tanpa hingar bingar kekuatan fisik. Lain lagi saat menghadapi penjajah fascis Jepang beliau menerapkan strategi “ngenthung” dalam Taman Tani yaitu diam tetapi melakukan konsolidasi agar pada saatnya bisa menetas- terbang menggapai cita-cita. Dalam ajang tekanan penindasan itu beliau selalu menerapkan kiat Meneng-Wening-Hanung-Menang (neng-ning-nung-nang).
Dengan kiat tersebut Ki Hadjar Dewantara selalu mendapat dukungan dari masyarakat bahkan banyak warga Belanda yang simpati dengan cara perjuangan (problem solving) beliau. Saat berada di interniran negeri Belanda, masyarakat kulit putih yang simpati dengan beliau mengumpulkan uang untuk diserahkan kepada beliau. Namun dengan sopan beliau menolak walau saat itu belum punya dana cukup, bahkan kepulangan ke tanah air tertunda selama 2 tahun.
Uraian problem solving ala Ki Hadjar Dewantara tersebut adalah :
NENG berarti MENENG yaitu tercapainya ketentraman lahir yang dapat dirasakan oleh suasana fisik antara lain tidak gaduh, tidak emosi, tidak membentak, tidak judes, tidak ngambek, tidak mencoret-coret tulisan di tembok, tidak melampiaskan dendam. Apabila suasana NENG ini bisa dicapai, maka orang sekeliling akan simpati dengan kita. Sebaliknya dengan bersikap gaduh misalnya membentak, teriak, emosi, ketus, demonstrasi hingga jalanan macet, maka orang tidak akan simpati kepada kita. Apabila kita dalam permasalahan, jagalah suasana fisik (neng) tadi tetap kondusif, tenang, wajar selanjutnya tidak pula menyulut emosi pihak lain yang tidak perlu.
NING berarti WENING yaitu tercapainya ketentraman batin yang dirasakan oleh rasa kalbu dan nurani yang jernih. Untuk mencapai rasa wening di hati orang sering beriktifar “astagfirullah” atau “puji Tuhan”. Kemudian berupayalah berpikir yang rasional tidak emosional, cara menyampaikan masalah dengan bahasa yang logik dan runtut sehingga akan menarik simpati orang lain. Suasana wening ini juga lebih kondusif memberi ide-ide penyelesaian masalah sesuai dengan nurani kemanusiaan dalam ajaran agama.
NUNG berarti HANUNG (besar) yaitu kebesaran jiwa dan luasnya wawasan, namun dapat pula dengan konotasi kebesaran/kekuatan raga (fisik).
Kebesaran jiwa tercermin dengan sikap “legowo”, menerima kritikan orang lain, tidak berpandangan sempit, tidak fanatik, tidak hypokrit, tidak apriori dll.
Sikap Hanung juga berkonotasi bersikap optimis tidak pesimis, yaitu selalu memandang hari depan dengan penuh harapan dan jiwa besar. Sikap Hanung mementingkan tujuan hari depan dan tidak mengungkit aib masa lalu (jadul).
“Mikul duwur mendhem jero” berarti melihat orang lain (almarhum) dari jasanya daripada kekurangannya. Dengan kebesaran jiwa akan tercapai kekuatan apresiatif dari masyarakat, selanjutnya mencapai kebesaran wibawa/kharisma, mendapat dukungan dari komunitasnya, selanjutnya kekuatan secara fisik/masa akan tercapai.

NANG berarti MENANG yaitu kemenangan moral dan atau kemenangan fisik. Kemenangan yang dicapai setelah NENG-NING-NUNG tidak menyakitkan hati pihak seberang. Hal ini tercapai karena adanya suasana “menang tanpo ngasorake” yaitu kemenangan yang tidak dengan menghinakan pihak lain.
Menang disini konotasinya bisa menang terhadap kesulitan, ujian, penindasan, penyelewengan, penghinaan, kebodohan, kemiskinan, godaan, kemusrikan, kemungkaran, kebatilan, kezaliman ataupun mengungguli taktik lawan. Lebih utama lagi bila bisa “Nglurug tanpo bolo, menang tanpo ngasorake”
Nglurug tanpo bolo adalah pelaksanaan konsep NENG, yaitu maju ke medan laga perjuangan tanpa pengerahan masa/fisik. Artinya kita menyelesaikan masalah secara konseptual dengan adu argumentasi tidak secara fisik pengerahan masa apalagi tawur, teror ataupun adu kekuatan. Hasil kemenangan seperti ini tidak dengan menghinakan atau menyakitkan hati pihak lain dan menghindari korban lawan dan kawan dari aspek lahir maupun batin.
Nglurug tanpo bolo sering didapati dalam epos pewayangan, dimana seorang ksatriya nglurug (menantang berperang) seorang diri walau dikeroyok banyak bala musuh. Dengan kesaktian dan diplomasinya maka ksatriya tersebut dapat merebut kemenangan dengan jumlah korban minimal.
Bolehlah kita berandai, bila konflik abadi di Timur Tengah sejak perjanjian lama mungkin bisa diselesaikan dengan neng-ning-nung-nang, siapa tahu.
Ada pula yang mengartikan “nang” sebagai WENANG yaitu suatu kekuasaan ataupun jabatan yang dapat diraih secara kondusif dan persuasif melalui proses neng-ning-nung dengan pencapaian “nang” secara demokratis.
Demikianlah neng-ning-nung-nang menjadi kiat dalam mencapai cita-cita Tamansiswa menuju masyarakat tertib dan damai, keluarga salam dan bahagia.
Dua pihak yang bersengketa, dapat menyelesaikan permasalahan dengan neng-ning-nung yaitu secara intensif mencari sinkronisasi solusi penyelesaian misalnya diskusi dan perundingan. Hasil yang didapat akan menguntungkan kedua belah pihak, solusi semacam ini disebut pula “win-win solution”.
Dalam win-win solution bukan semata mencari menang (win) secara pribadi/sepihak, namun dengan toleransi tepo sliro yang didasari watak “nung” (hanung) yaitu dalam beberapa hal legowo “mengalah” atau mundur selangkah untuk maju sepuluh langkah. Mengalah dengan kata lain memberi kesempatan pihak lain untuk merasa menang. Tentu hal ini hanya bisa dicapai melalui “neng” dan “ning”, kemudian setelah “nung” kita akan “nang” yaitu merasakan kemenangan secara bersama.
Itulah goal setting “win-win solution” yang searah dengan tujuan kiat neng-ning-nung-nang, problem solving ala Ki Hadjar Dewantara (1922).

(Ki Priyo Dwiarso, Anggota Majelis Luhur Persatuan Tamansiswa)
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Komentar (3)

1. Ditulis oleh herlinatiensAlamat email ini telah dilindungi dari spam bots, Javascript harus aktif untuk melihatnya , pada tanggal : 20-04-2008 11:53
Suatu hari, oleh mas Jayadi KR saya ditanya begini: bagaimana kabar neng-ning-nung-nang. Saya malu begitu tidak bisa menjawab, saya hanya ingat sedikit saja. Nah membaca tulisan Ki Priyo di KR waktu itu, lebih mudah buat saya mengingatnya dengan cara yang mengigit. Mustinya memang ajaran-ajaran dari Ki Hadjar kembali di tuturkan lewat tulisan-tulisan yang lebih mudah dicerna oleh masyarakat kekinian. Konsep dan wacana ke Tamansiswaan memiliki spirit yang bagus untuk tetap diterapkan dalam masyarakat Indonesia yang semakin kronis. Salam dan salut buat ki Priyo Dwiarso. Saya tunggu tulisan berikutnya...
2. problem soving ala kihajar dewantoro
Ditulis oleh
triseno adjiAlamat email ini telah dilindungi dari spam bots, Javascript harus aktif untuk melihatnya , pada tanggal : 22-08-2008 09:25
cara pendekatan seperti yg di kemukakan Ki hajardewantoro perlu disosialisasikan lebih luas mengingat keadaan bangsa Indonesia sedang carut marut tidak lagi mengenal lagi kosep tersebut dan masyarakat nya cenderung menanggapi masalah dengan cara mengedepankan fisik emosi dan maunnya diselesaikan secara instan, apa karena sering makan mie instan ,
3. Skeptis thd Nang-Ning-Nung
Ditulis oleh
siswantoAlamat email ini telah dilindungi dari spam bots, Javascript harus aktif untuk melihatnya , pada tanggal : 17-02-2009 01:29
Dalam situasi masyarakat yang bagaimana Nang-Ning-Nung bisa bekerja efektif?

Ada nuansa tebar auora positif ke sekliling. Apakah asumsi bahwa sekeliling punya "roso rumongso" dan "tepo seliro" sehingga tebar auora positif itu efektif? atau ini sebenarnya hanya berlaku untuk komunitas tertentu?

Di jalan-jalan di Jogja saat ini, ketika mau belok atau menyeberang, bahkan seorang cacad atau orang tuapun tidak lagi mendapat ruang untuk dihormati. Mungkin cukup dipupus dengan "sing waras ngalah, gedhé wekasané" Tetapi terbuklti, seperti di Jogja saat ini, nilai dominan itu semakin terpinggir oleh semakin beragamnya masyarakat dan kem,ajuan peradaban.
MENGAMBIL KEPUTUSAN ADALAH TINDAKAN PENTING BAGI PERUSAHAAN DAN BAGI ANDA SENDIRI
Fakta menunjukkan bahwa kelancaran operasional suatu perusahaan sangat ditentukan oleh kemampuan para eksekutifnya dalam menangani masalah dan mengambil keputusan.
Keberhasilan memikul tanggung jawab seorang eksekutif sering diukur melalui kemampuannya dalam menangani masalah secara cepat dan efektif. Citra seorang eksekutif akan meningkat jika keputusan yang diambil bermutu.
KEPUTUSAN EFEKTIF TIDAK BERARTI HANYA MEMECAHKAN MASALAH DENGAN CEPAT
Seringkali kita terjebak oleh situasi yang sulit, dan harus mengambil keputusan penting. Kita perlu mempertimbangkan peluang-peluang yang ada serta sekaligus menganalisis kemungkinan ancaman yang akan timbul di masa yang akan datang, sehingga keputusan yang dihasilkan mampu mengatasi masalah yang sekarang tanpa menimbulkan masalah potensial di masa yang akan datang.
Kemampuan dan kesiapan dalam mengantisipasi keadaan sangat diperlukan oleh setiap pengambil keputusan. Pelatihan ini dirancang khusus agar peserta dapat menguasai tahapan proses menangani masalah dan mengambil keputusan secara rasional dan kreatif.
Latihan-latihan mulai dari menganalisis masalah-masalah yang ringan sampai dengan masalah-masalah yang kompleks akan dibahas dalam pelatihan ini. Metode yang akan dipergunakan antara lain: kuliah singkat, aplikasi konsep, kasus dan diskusi kelompok.
SASARAN
Setelah lokakarya ini, peserta diharapkan mampu:
  • Memahami teknik-teknik pemecahan masalah secara rasional
  • Memahami teknik pemecahan masalah secara kreatif
  • Memahami teknik pengambilan keputusan optimal, rasional dan kreatif
  • Memahami metode menganalisis masalah potensial
  • Meningkatkan keterampilan memecahkan masalah dan pengambilan keputusan
  • Meningkatkan keterampilan dalam mempresentasikan keputusan secara efektif
  • Mengembangkan pengetahuan dan keterampilan pengambilan keputusan.
PESERTA
  • Para pengambil keputusan
  • Eksekutif madya
  • Para manajer
  • Supervisor yang akan dipromosikan.
POKOK BAHASAN
  • Proses dan fungsi manajemen
  • Analisis persoalan
  • Analisis pengambilan keputusan
  • Analisis masalah potensial
  • Pemecahan masalah secara kreatif
  • Teknik presentasi efektif
  • Implementasi keputusan
MENGAMBIL KEPUTUSAN ADALAH TINDAKAN PENTING BAGI PERUSAHAAN DAN BAGI ANDA SENDIRI
Fakta menunjukkan bahwa kelancaran operasional suatu perusahaan sangat ditentukan oleh kemampuan para eksekutifnya dalam menangani masalah dan mengambil keputusan.
Keberhasilan memikul tanggung jawab seorang eksekutif sering diukur melalui kemampuannya dalam menangani masalah secara cepat dan efektif. Citra seorang eksekutif akan meningkat jika keputusan yang diambil bermutu.
KEPUTUSAN EFEKTIF TIDAK BERARTI HANYA MEMECAHKAN MASALAH DENGAN CEPAT
Seringkali kita terjebak oleh situasi yang sulit, dan harus mengambil keputusan penting. Kita perlu mempertimbangkan peluang-peluang yang ada serta sekaligus menganalisis kemungkinan ancaman yang akan timbul di masa yang akan datang, sehingga keputusan yang dihasilkan mampu mengatasi masalah yang sekarang tanpa menimbulkan masalah potensial di masa yang akan datang.
Kemampuan dan kesiapan dalam mengantisipasi keadaan sangat diperlukan oleh setiap pengambil keputusan. Pelatihan ini dirancang khusus agar peserta dapat menguasai tahapan proses menangani masalah dan mengambil keputusan secara rasional dan kreatif.
Latihan-latihan mulai dari menganalisis masalah-masalah yang ringan sampai dengan masalah-masalah yang kompleks akan dibahas dalam pelatihan ini. Metode yang akan dipergunakan antara lain: kuliah singkat, aplikasi konsep, kasus dan diskusi kelompok.
SASARAN
Setelah lokakarya ini, peserta diharapkan mampu:
  • Memahami teknik-teknik pemecahan masalah secara rasional
  • Memahami teknik pemecahan masalah secara kreatif
  • Memahami teknik pengambilan keputusan optimal, rasional dan kreatif
  • Memahami metode menganalisis masalah potensial
  • Meningkatkan keterampilan memecahkan masalah dan pengambilan keputusan
  • Meningkatkan keterampilan dalam mempresentasikan keputusan secara efektif
  • Mengembangkan pengetahuan dan keterampilan pengambilan keputusan.
PESERTA
  • Para pengambil keputusan
  • Eksekutif madya
  • Para manajer
  • Supervisor yang akan dipromosikan.
POKOK BAHASAN
  • Proses dan fungsi manajemen
  • Analisis persoalan
  • Analisis pengambilan keputusan
  • Analisis masalah potensial
  • Pemecahan masalah secara kreatif
  • Teknik presentasi efektif
  • Implementasi keputusan
MENGAMBIL KEPUTUSAN ADALAH TINDAKAN PENTING BAGI PERUSAHAAN DAN BAGI ANDA SENDIRI
Fakta menunjukkan bahwa kelancaran operasional suatu perusahaan sangat ditentukan oleh kemampuan para eksekutifnya dalam menangani masalah dan mengambil keputusan.
Keberhasilan memikul tanggung jawab seorang eksekutif sering diukur melalui kemampuannya dalam menangani masalah secara cepat dan efektif. Citra seorang eksekutif akan meningkat jika keputusan yang diambil bermutu.
KEPUTUSAN EFEKTIF TIDAK BERARTI HANYA MEMECAHKAN MASALAH DENGAN CEPAT
Seringkali kita terjebak oleh situasi yang sulit, dan harus mengambil keputusan penting. Kita perlu mempertimbangkan peluang-peluang yang ada serta sekaligus menganalisis kemungkinan ancaman yang akan timbul di masa yang akan datang, sehingga keputusan yang dihasilkan mampu mengatasi masalah yang sekarang tanpa menimbulkan masalah potensial di masa yang akan datang.
Kemampuan dan kesiapan dalam mengantisipasi keadaan sangat diperlukan oleh setiap pengambil keputusan. Pelatihan ini dirancang khusus agar peserta dapat menguasai tahapan proses menangani masalah dan mengambil keputusan secara rasional dan kreatif.
Latihan-latihan mulai dari menganalisis masalah-masalah yang ringan sampai dengan masalah-masalah yang kompleks akan dibahas dalam pelatihan ini. Metode yang akan dipergunakan antara lain: kuliah singkat, aplikasi konsep, kasus dan diskusi kelompok.
SASARAN
Setelah lokakarya ini, peserta diharapkan mampu:
  • Memahami teknik-teknik pemecahan masalah secara rasional
  • Memahami teknik pemecahan masalah secara kreatif
  • Memahami teknik pengambilan keputusan optimal, rasional dan kreatif
  • Memahami metode menganalisis masalah potensial
  • Meningkatkan keterampilan memecahkan masalah dan pengambilan keputusan
  • Meningkatkan keterampilan dalam mempresentasikan keputusan secara efektif
  • Mengembangkan pengetahuan dan keterampilan pengambilan keputusan.
PESERTA
  • Para pengambil keputusan
  • Eksekutif madya
  • Para manajer
  • Supervisor yang akan dipromosikan.
POKOK BAHASAN
  • Proses dan fungsi manajemen
  • Analisis persoalan
  • Analisis pengambilan keputusan
  • Analisis masalah potensial
  • Pemecahan masalah secara kreatif
  • Teknik presentasi efektif
  • Implementasi keputusan
Penulis sering melihat banyak orang sangat giat dalam bekerja dan belajar dengan tujuan pada suatu hari kelak bisa sukses dan tersohor, maka dari itu mereka mencurahkan segenap jiwa dan energi dalam menembus usaha atau di dalam bidang studinya. Sebaliknya, mereka jarang sekali merenungkan dengan seksama permasalahan diri sendiri di dalam hubungan antar sesama, dalam emosi atau di dalam bidang permukaan lainnya. Meski pernah dipikirkan, juga hanya berpikir sekenanya dan tanpa tujuan jelas, serta tidak dapat menganggap problema tersebut sebagai hal yang sangat serius. Oleh karenanya, permasalahan-permasalahan itu biasanya akan senentiasa mengganggu mereka.
Teknik Pemecahan Masalah (Problem Solving Technique)
Jika hendak menangani problem yang eksis dalam jangka waktu panjang ini, kita sering kali mengusulkan kepada client untuk menggunakan seperangkat metode sistematis untuk direnungkan, metode perenungan ini disebut “Problem Solving Technique”.
Problem Solving Technique mempunyai alur proses tertentu dan langkah penyelesaian, ia bisa mendorong anda menggunakan semacam metode cermat untuk mempertimbangkan masalah, juga bisa memaksa anda menggunakan sudut pandang berbeda dan cara bertindak luwes dan adaptif dalam memikirkan permasalahan. Dibawah ini adalah langkah-langkah penting itu:
Langkah pertama: Menemukan permalahannya, penyebutan problema yang singkat dan jelas akan semakin baik.
Langkah pertama menekankan bahwa anda harus membahas permasalahan yang ditemui sekarang, semakin sederhana dan semakin jelas makin baik.
Sebagai contoh, ketika anda menghadapi permasalahan hubungan antar manusia, bisa memetik keluar problemanya, seperti “Saya dikucilkan oleh teman sekelas tertentu”, inilah yang disebut penuturan singkat dan jelas, dengan begitu juga lebih mudah ditangani, tetapi jikalau anda menyatakan “Hubungan antar manusia saya tidak baik”, ini terlihat agak lebih kosong, kabur, bisa membuat langkah penyelesaian selanjutnya sulit dilaksanakan.
Langkah ke-dua: Mencari berbagai metode penyelesaian yang memungkinkan
Apabila anda dikucilkan oleh sebagian teman sekelas, sedangkan anda ingin menyelesaikan problem ini, tentu saja bisa memikirkan berbagai cara penyelesaian. Misalnya saja, mengundang teman sekelas lainnya membantu anda tampil berkomunikasi, dengan proaktif memancarkan niat baik, mengajak guru berbicara dan tidak menghiraukan mereka dll. Apabila anda berpikir dengan seksama, bisa saja memikirkan banyak cara penyelesaian.
Langkah ke-tiga: Pertimbangkan setiap cara penyelesaian pragmatis dan dampaknya
Ketika sesudah anda mengemukakan berbagai metode penyelesaian yang memungkinkan, harus satu persatu menganalisa sifat pragmatis dan dampak dari metode tersebut. Misalnya, jikalau anda ingin mencari teman sekelas lainnya untuk membantu anda berkomunikasi, adakah situasi yang bisa menimbulkan kekeliruan penyampaian? Bisakah pihak lain merasakan ketidak-tulusan anda? Apabila anda proaktif memancarkan kebajikan, bisakah pihak lain sama sekali tak menghiraukannya? Apabila mereka tidak bereaksi, maka anda harus bagaimana?
Langkah ke-empat: Pilih salah satu metode penyelesaian
Ketika anda sesudah menganalisa berbagai kelebihan dan kekurangan metode-metode tertentu, sudah harus memilih sebuah cara penyelesaian untuk dilaksanakan.
Langkah ke-lima: Langkah penyelesaian yang kongkret
Ketika sesudah anda telah memutuskan salah satu cara pelaksanaan, maka harus merencanakan langkah pelaksanaan dengan cermat. Kemungkinan anda di dalam proses penetapan perencanaan pelaksanaan melihat sebagian point kesulitan, waktu itu anda boleh menyelesaikannya sebelum kesulitan terjadi.
Langkah ke-enam: Pelaksanaan metode penyelesaian tersebut
Langkah ke-tujuh: Menilai proses penyelesaian problema secara keseluruhan, pikirkan dengan seksama apakah masih ada yang perlu dirombak, dan tentukan tingkatan nilai 1 hingga 10, untuk melakukan penilaian terhadap tingkatan yang dicapai diri sendiri.
Pada akhrinya langkah ini adalah digunakan untuk menilai efektifitas pelaksanaan diri. Jikalau rencana telah dilaksanakan dengan sukses, yang bersangkutan bisa berubah menjadi lebih percaya diri, juga rela menerjuni cara penyelesaian perenungan permasalahan yang lebih banyak. Meski rencana dan pelaksanaan telah gagal, yang bersangkutan bisa mempelajari hikmah dari dalam proses introspeksinya.
Di dalam sharing pengalaman yang diikuti penulis, dengan mendalam merasakan banyak orang jarang sekali merenungkan kegundahan hatinya, penulis percaya, asalkan semua orang mengeluarkan sepertiga dari waktu membaca atau jam kerja untuk merenung/berefleksi, pasti terjadi taraf perombakan sangat besar pada problem anda.
Ruang Psychotherapy
Kiat penyelesaian masalah memiliki proses tetap dan langkah-langkah, ia bisa memaksa anda dengan sebuah cara seksama untuk merenungkan permasalahan, juga bisa memaksa anda menggunakan sudut pandang berbeda dan cara bertindak luwes dan adaptif untuk mempertimbangkan permasalahan.
Cari sebuah hal yang dewasa ini membuat anda risau, menggunakan langkah penyelesaian problema untuk direnungkan. Anda bakal menemukan, metode penyelesaian problema ternyata ada begitu banyak, sedangkan sudut pandang perenungan problema ternyata juga demikian banyak
Didalam hidup setiap orang pastilah akan banyak sekali masalah yang menghadang. Dan sayangnya kita tidak bisa memilih kapan masalah itu harus datang. Masalah itu seperti pencuri yang datangnya kita tidak tahu. Terkadang di satu saat ada banyak masalah yang menghadang hidup kita. Dan kadang saya pikir, kenapa ngga satu-satu aja masalah datang, kenapa harus datang berbarengan.
Yah… memang setiap orang mempunyai masalahnya sendiri. Kadang kita melihat orang yang terlihat berkelimpahan harta lalu kita pikir, “Wah enak sekali orang itu, hidup senang tanpa masalah”. Wow, darimana anda tahu orang itu tidak punya masalah. Mana kita tahu bahwa si kaya ini masalahnya lebih banyak daripada kita. Kalau kata Tukul Arwana, “Don’t judge the book, just from the cover.”
Lalu bagaimana caranya melewati masalah yang berdatang secara berbarengan? Teman karib saya pernah berkata bagus sekali seperti ini, “Ed, kalau kamu berpikir menghindari satu masalah saja dalam hidup kamu, itu berarti kamu harus menghindari semua masalah yang kamu punya. Selain mustahil, itu tandanya kamu pengecut!” Setelah saya pikir, ah sayangnya ternyata dia benar.
Beberapa buku yang saya baca, jika seseorang sedang dilanda masalah, inventarislah apa saja cara yang kira-kira bisa menyelesaikan masalah itu dan lalu buat skala prioritas, cara apa yang paling efisien dan tepat untuk menyelesaikannya. Begitu juga jika masalah datang bersamaan, buatlah skala prioritas masalah mana yang sekiranya paling mudah diselesaikan terlebih dahulu sehingga jumlah masalah bisa berkurang dan anda bisa fokus untuk menyelesaikan masalah yang lebih rumit.
Poin yang paling penting setelah kita berhasil menyelesaikan masalah, kita akan semakin tegar dan semakin dewasa. Hadapilah masalahnya dan dapatkan hikmah yang tersembunyi di dalamnya dengan begitu kita akan semakin kuat.

"God is subtle, but he is not malicious" — Albert Einstein.
I want to blame television, but I suspect that's too easy. I've been hearing about the decline of standards in American education, the absence of creative thinking skills in young people, but until recently I had no direct evidence. Now that I receive daily e-mails from people asking questions about the Internet, all doubt has evaporated — today's Americans cannot think for themselves.

In the largest sense, American society is breaking into two classes:
  • The first class are people who know how to think. These people realize that most problems are open to examination and creative solution. If a problem appears in the lives of these people, their intellectual training will quickly lead them to a solution or an alternative statement of the problem. These people are the source of the most important product in today's economy — ideas.
  • The second class, the vast majority of Americans, are people who cannot think for themselves. I call these people "idea consumers" — metaphorically speaking, they wander around in a gigantic open-air mall of facts and ideas. The content of their experience is provided by television, the Internet and other shallow data pools. These people believe collecting images and facts makes them educated and competent, and all their experiences reinforce this belief. The central, organizing principle of this class is that ideas come from somewhere else, from magical persons, geniuses, "them."
The world view of these two classes is so fundamentally different that a chasm is opening between them that will soon swallow even the illusion of American democracy.
We are entering an era in history in which, if things go very badly, a small number of people trained to create ideas will completely dominate the lives of a vast sea of idea consumers, people whose lives are ruled by facts.
The belief in the authority of idea producers is the modern replacement for religion. Just like religion, this belief closes off a vast area of human experience, streamlines the equations of life and makes one's existence pathetically simple — all one need do is find out what views it is acceptable to hold.
My purpose in this article is to undermine that belief. I assert that there are no authorities in the realm of human ideas — each idea must be weighed against all other ideas, and ideas should be evaluated solely on their intrinsic merit, without regard to their source.
The above position will not be a fast-breaking story to someone trained in original thought, and neither will this: all these statements are one person's ideas and are most useful when included in a much larger collection of ideas, including the reader's own.
Here are some common misconceptions about ideas and idea production:
Thesis: A holder of a college degree has an intellectual superiority that others lack.
Does anyone still believe this? Yes. And the fastest way to lose this belief is to talk to college graduates, as I regularly do. At its best, college will train you to think creatively, and prepare you for the reality that education never ends. At its worst, college will reinforce an inbred intellectual smugness, dress it in facts, and provide you with a document asserting your immunity to all future intellectual experience.

If this thesis held any intrinsic truth, then going to college would make you smart, a position for which there is no evidence. Going to a college doesn't make you smart any more than going to a bank makes you rich — unless, of course, you bring your own money to the bank. By the same token, if you arrive at college with your own intellectual resources — your own riches — you may well become "smarter," whatever that means in real human terms.

In the absence of that personal investment, as you leave the bank or college, you will end up with symbolic wealth instead of real wealth, and the trip will have been wasted. The expression, "I must be smart — I went to college" makes as much sense as "I must be rich — I have dozens of credit cards."
Thesis: Consulting an expert is a more efficient way to solve a problem than simply working it out for myself.This is only true if you are a lifelong idea consumer, an unenviable position. After the most basic facts have been taken into account, one is better off creating personal solutions to problems than searching for existing solutions. The reasons this is true are almost too numerous to list:
· By solving the problem yourself, you will increase your index of self-reliance, which might eventually become a theme in your life.
· In solving the problem, you may create a more efficient solution than anyone has before you (translation: nature might smile on you). You might thereby make an original contribution to the store of human knowledge. If you haven't experienced this, you can't imagine it. But if you have experienced this, you can't describe it.
· While solving the problem, you will place your personal stamp on the end product, thereby creating a personal expression that cannot be erased by time.
· By solving the problem yourself, you become less dependent on experts, authorities, technical super-beings, perhaps even to the extent that those people will be reduced to human proportions.
This is just a short list.
Thesis: A computer program with a lot of predefined features is superior to one that allows me to create my own features.I know this is a sudden shift from the general to the specific, but it serves to show how a bias created by television can influence other behaviors. The basic message of television is "Let me do it for you — you cannot do it alone, I am essential. Your experience is shaped by my ideas, your own ideas have no value at all. You cannot possibly detect humor, that is beyond the scope of your small brain, so I will signal the presence of humor by laughing for you. Laugh with me, think with me, become me."

The inevitable result is that computer programs are esteemed to the degree that they are like television. For example, a really awful program like Microsoft's Front Page receives high ratings, even though the program actively represses individual creativity and the user is reduced to following a single behavioral pattern built into the program by its designers. It is instructive to submit a pre-existing HTML document to Front Page, which then proceeds to erase any tags it doesn't recognize as its own. No error messages, no dialogue, all tags it doesn't know about are simply eaten. Most people I have talked to finally realize it is easier to stop using Front Page than to try to exercise any personal control over its behavior.

By contrast, consider
Arachnophilia, my Web page workshop. I am using Arachnophilia only to make a point, and I am not trying to sell you my program, as you will discover if you visit the page. Arachnophilia is a good example of open software design — a design the user can change in the field to meet requirements the programmer (me) cannot possibly think of himself, including new requirements that do not exist at the time of development. By the way, Arachnophilia is a descendant of my classic best-seller "Apple Writer," an early word processor for the Apple II that also was field-extendable by way of a macro language (in an era when macro languages were virtually unheard of).

But, and as usual, I digress. My goal in writing Arachnophilia was to replace its immediate predecessor WebThing, which could be programmed by the user only to a small extent (one special toolbar, 32 custom commands). But while distributing WebThing I noticed people were asking for features and HTML tags I couldn't possibly fit into the framework of any finite-sized computer program. So I made sure the new design included a way for users to add any number of additional commands and tags. The user can even create new toolbars, then fill them with commands. This feature is especially important in HTML development, because HTML is itself rapidly changing, and it is easier to add tags to an existing program than to create a new version of that program every time a raft of new tags appears.

After I finished Arachnophilia I expected an end to the flood of e-mail asking for new tags. After all, it would now take less time for a user to add a new tag than to write and ask me to do it. But, to my surprise, the volume of e-mail increased!

After a while I realized what the problems were. The first problem was that people didn't expect to be able to change the behavior of the program, because virtually no Windows programs let you do this. The second problem was no one bothered to read the help screens. Basically if my program could be made to produce a result, immediately, without any study or insight, then it was useful, and any capabilities behind that external appearance might as well not exist. Yes, just like television.

I personally think computer programs should be evaluated on criteria that are not presently thought important (because the average user is happy thinking of his computer as though it were a toaster — press the button, wait for smoke). The most important missing question is: how easy is it to add a behavior to the program the designer didn't think of? If this question were to be regarded as important, most Windows programs would fail. The next question would be: how much does the program learn from the user?
A summary — key elements of problem-solving
Here is some common-sense advice for solving problems. If you are in the minority who are trained to think creatively and you think these points are too obvious, that is only because you haven't read my e-mail.
Thesis
Everyday Expression
If the problem you are trying to solve has already been solved by others, by all means learn that solution first, even if you intend to improve on it.
If your home page doesn't work, do not assume that (1) the HTML editor you have chosen is defective, (2) nature is out to get you, or (3) you are too stupid to learn HTML. Instead, browse the Web, where in a few short minutes you will find millions of pages you can download and examine. Find a page with the appearance you want for your page. Download it. Look at its HTML code. Notice that the tags are not the same as yours. Change your tags.
Begin by solving the simplest version of the problem.
A page that says "Hi, this is my page!" — and works perfectly — is morally superior to one that has a faint chance of proving Fermat's Last Theorem in real time, but crashes every browser it encounters.
Build your solution incrementally.
Add to your page in small parts. Test the new page as you work. Otherwise you will have no chance to discover the tiny flaw, entered three hours ago, that now makes smoke come out of your computer.
Avoid focusing on a single solution.
Try to look at problems in fresh ways. Deliberately abandon your pet theory about the nature of the problem, adopt instead a theory that may seem silly at first glance (like the ridiculous idea that the continents are drifting around. Or that birds are descended from dinosaurs. Imagine!).
Avoid hidden assumptions.
Sometimes when your page crashes the browser, it is the fault of the browser, not the page.
Be patient and persevere.
If you are patient enough and look enough places, nature will reveal her secrets. Every great inventor discovered this first.
Don't expect to find permanent answers.
Like great poems, great ideas are never finished, only replaced by others.
Problem-solving
A problem is a situation which is experienced by an agent as different from the situation which the agent ideally would like to be in. A problem is solved by a sequence of actions that reduce the difference between the initial situation and the goal
A problem can be analysed into more specific components. First of all it consists of the two situations, the present one which we will call the initial state, and the desired one, which we can call the goal state. The agent's task is to get from the initial state to the goal state by means of series of actions that change the state. The problem is solved if such a series of actions has been found, and the goal has been reached. In general, problem-solving is a component of goal-directed action or control.
In simple control problems, the solution is trivial. For example, the thermostat is a control system or agent whose goal is to reach or maintain a specific temperature. The initial state is the present temperature. The action consists in either heating to increase the temperature or cooling to decrease it. The decision which of these two possible actions to apply is trivial: if the initial temperature is lower than the goal temperature, then heat; if it is higher, then cool; if it is the same, then do nothing. Such problems are solved by a deterministic algorithm: at every decision point there is only one correct choice. This choice is guaranteed to bring the agent to the desired solution.
The situations we usually call "problems" have a more complex structure. There is choice of possible actions, none of which is obviously the right one. The most general approach to tackle such processes is generate and test: apply an action to generate a new state, then test whether the state is the goal state; if it is not, then repeat the procedure. This principle is equivalent to trial-and-error, or to evolution's variation and selection. The repeated application of generate and test determines a search process, exploring different possibilities until the goal is found. Searches can be short or long depending on the complexity of the problem and the efficiency of the agent's problem-solving strategy or heuristic. Searches may in fact be infinitely long: even if a solution exists, there is no guarantee that the agent will find it in a finite time.
Such a search process requires a series of actions, carefully selected from a repertoire of available actions to bring the present state closer to the goal. Different actions will have different effects on the state. Some of these effects will bring the present state closer to the goal, others will rather push it farther away. To choose the best action at every moments of the problem-solving process, the agent needs some knowledge of the problem domain. This knowledge will have the general form of a production rule: if the present state has certain properties, then perform a certain action. Such heuristic knowledge requires that the problem states be distinguished by their properties. This leads us to a further analysis of problems.
Problem states will generally involve objects, which are the elements of the situation that are invariant under actions, and properties or predicates, which are the variable attributes of the objects. A problem state then can be formulated as a combination of propositions, where elementary propositions attribute a particular predicate to a particular object. The different values of the predicates determine a set of possible propositions, and thus of possible states. Since states that differ only in one value of one predicate can be said to be "closer" together than states that differ in several values, the state set gets the structure of a space, ordered by an elementary "distance" function. Actions can now be represented as operators or transformations, which map one element of the state space onto another, usually neighbouring, element.
The final component we need to decide between actions is a selection criterion, which tells the agent which of the several actions that can be applied to a given state is most likely to bring it closer to the goal. In the simplest case, an action consists simply of moving to one of the neighbouring states. Each state will then be associated with a certain value which designates the degree to which it satisfies the goal. This value may be called "fitness". The search space then turns into a fitness landscape, where every point in the space ("horizontal") is associated with a "vertical" fitness value, so that a landscape with valleys and peaks appears. Problem-solving then reduces to "hill-climbing": following the path through the fitness landscape that leads most directly upward.
The efficiency of problem-solving is strongly determined by the way the problem is analysed into separate components: objects, predicates, state space, operators, selection criteria. This is called the problem representation. Changing the problem representation, i.e. analysing the problem domain according to different dimensions or distinctions, is likely to make the problem much easier or much more difficult to solve. States which are near to each other in one representation may be far apart in another representation of the same problem. Therefore, a goal state that could be reached easily in one representation may be virtually impossible to find in another one. Problem representations are usually also models of the situation as experienced by the agent.